Structure of Indian Constitution

The Constitution, the holy book of Indian law, in its current form (2015), consists of: 

• Preamble: It is an 'introduction' or a 'preface' to Indian Constitution. The Preamble simply reveals the source, nature, objectives and the date of adoption of the constitution.

• Parts: 
• Indian constitution contains list of articles with clauses and sub-clauses under them. In the below picture '6.' represents Article 6 and Article 6(b) represents a clause under article 6. And Article 6(b)(i) represents a sub-clause under (b) clause of Article 6.

• These articles are grouped together as parts. Refer below table.

• Original Indian Constitution had 22 parts and 395 articles. Later 4 parts were added to it as amendments ( 4A - Fundamental Duties, 9A – Muncipalities, 9B – co-operative societies and 14A tribunals). Now there are 25 parts consisting of 448 articles. Articles added by constitutional amendments are not added as a new article but are listed as articles under existing related articles. So at any time, number of articles numerically will be 395. 

e.g 1: 1st Constitutional Amendment Act of 1951 inserted articles 31A and 31B instead of adding Article 396. Note that Article 31A refers to an article while Article 31(a) refers to a clause under Article 31.

e.g 2 :New article inserted for 'Fundamental duties' under the 42nd constitutional amendment act 1976 is added as Article 51A. Article 51 is the last article of Directive Principles of State Policy.  Hence although total articles are 448, one will find only 395 articles in constitution.

• Schedules: These are long arduous lists which categorize and tabulate the bureaucratic activity and policy of government. These are basically lists and tables giving out information. Eg: Schedule I deals with the names of states and their territorial jurisdiction. These are kept separate and not a part of original text of constitution due to their bulkiness of over 100 pages even with small microscopic font(that we usually see for terms and conditions on official documents). But these schedules are very much part of the constitution. Indian Constitution originally had 8 schedules. Four more schedules were added by different amendments, now making a total tally of 12. 

PS: Earlier many acts were included in the ninth schedule to escape from the Judicial review, but after Kesavananda Bharati case, Court has taken steps to curtail that practice too.

Watch this for detailed info on Schedules.

• Appendices 
• Appendix I—The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954.

• Appendix II— Re-statement, with reference to the present text of the Constitution, of the exceptions and modifications subject to which the Constitution applies to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

• Appendix III—Extracts from the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978.

• Appendix IV—The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002.

• Appendix V— The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003.

PREAMBLE

A Preamble in general sense is an 'introduction' or a 'preface' to something, which in our case is Indian Constitution. Eminent Jurist and Constitutional expert N A Palkhivala referred Preamble as the 'Identity card of the Constitution'.

To begin with, American constitution was the first to include/adopt a preamble. Many countries including India later followed this practice. Preamble of Indian Constitution was in fact based on the Objective Resolution adopted by the Constituent assembly on January 22nd, 1947.


Following is the text of the Preamble of Indian Constitution as is on January 26th, 1950:

“

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

”

26 years later, under the rule of Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act was passed and made following changes in the Preamble of Constitution.

“

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

”

Amendability of the Preamble 

In 1960, in Berubari vs Union of India, Supreme court, the apex court of Indian Judiciary and the highest authority to interpret the Constitution as a part of its judgment, has ruled that Preamble is not an Integral part of the Constitution hence cannot be amended. It also ruled that 'it is key to open the mind of the makers' which shows general purposes for which they made provisions in the constitution. 

However, in 1973, in Kesavananda Bharti vs Union of India, supreme court held that its opinion tendered as a part of Berubari case was wrong and stated that Preamble is a part of constitution. Hence it can be amended as per Article 368 but without altering its basic structure. Further, in 1995 in LIC OF INDIA case the supreme court again held that Preamble is an integral part of the constitution. 

Further, Preamble of Constitution is non-enforceable and non-justiciable. It is neither source of power nor prohibiting on it.

Analysis of the Preamble 

The Preamble simply reveals the source, nature, objectives and the date of adoption of the constitution.

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA - Indicates that people are the source of power, meaning that the constitution derives its authority from the people. People are the popular sovereign and constitution is the embodiment of the sovereignty of the people of this country.

SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC, REPUBLIC: It indicates the nature of Constitution.

JUSTICE, LIBERTY, EQUALITY AND FRATERNITY: Indicates the objectives of the constitution.

26th DAY OF NOVEMBER : Indicates the date of adoption and enactment of Constitution.

Terminology 

1. Sovereign: 

Primarily the word sovereign here means that India is neither a colony nor a dominion anymore. But it is a supremely independent state. The people are the popular sovereign and they enjoy this sovereignty with highest authority both internally and externally.   

Internally, as the people are free to elect the government which makes laws for the country. Also people are free to remove the government if they loose confidence in the existing government. Further, people of India are free to participate and elect at 3-tiers of the government.

Externally, as no foreign power can dictate terms or control India. Only people of this country, holding sovereign authority, can dictate the Government of India.

Note: India has been a member of UNO since 1945. India has declared her continuation of full membership of Commonwealth of Nations in 1949, accepting British crown as the head of the commonwealth . This extra-constitutional declaration does not affect the sovereignty of India as it is an alliance or association of nations for mutual benefits. As Nehru clarifies on the similar doubts in the assembly: 

'It is an agreement by free will, to be terminated by free will.'

2. Socialist: 

This term was added as a part of 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976. This feature was implicitly present and followed in the Directive Principles of State Policy(DPSP). However this constitutional amendment act made it explicit by including it in the Preamble.

India follows its own brand of 'Democratic socialism' which aims to end poverty, ignorance, disease and inequality of opportunity(as told by a Judge of Supreme Court). While the popular 'Communistic Socialism' involves nationalization of all means of production and distribution, abolition of private property. Indian socialism is a mix of Marxism and Gandhism with high inclination towards Gandhism. Hence, it is popularly called 'Gadhian Socialism'  However on this issue, Indira Gandhi has clarified saying: 

'We always said that we have our own brand of socialism. We will nationalize the sectors where we feel the necessity. Just nationalization is not our type of socialism'.

The LPG economic policy - Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization of 1991 has highly diluted socialistic credential of Indian Sovereign. 


3. Secular: 

This term was added as a part of 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976. This feature was very much part of the constitution implicitly as mentioned in Articles 25 to 28 (Guarantees fundamental right to religion). However this constitutional amendment act made it explicit by including it in the Preamble. 

Indian Constitution promises a positive secularism i.e., irrespective of which religion you belong to, you will get same treatment and support from the state. Simply put, constitution considers religion as an individual's private affair and hence do not impose or restricts individual's right to religion. Indian State do not support or have any foundation based on religion. P B Gajendragadkar, Former Chief Justice of Supreme Court defined secularism in Indian context as:

'The state does not owe loyalty to any particular religion as such; it is not irreligious or anti-religious. It gives equal freedom to all religions.'

On the basis of attitude of states towards religion, three types of states can be conceived of:

Atheistic state: Anti-religious and hence condemns all religions. Eg: Albania, North Korea were once Atheistic.

Theocratic state: Pro-religion. Hence declares one religion as the state religion. Eg: Pakistan.

Secular State: Neutral in religious affairs. Does not uphold any religion. Eg: USA, INDIA.


4. Democratic:

This feature of the Preamble is based on the doctrine of popular sovereignty. That is possession of supreme power by the people. Democracy literally means 'people's rule'. 

There are two forms of democracy - direct and indirect. Direct form of Democracy can be seen in the cantonments of Switzerland. In direct democracy, Referendum, Initiative, recall and plebiscite are used as mechanisms.

Referendum - A proposed legislation is put before electorate for their direct voting.
Initiative - Any member of the electorate can propose a bill to legislation for enactment.
Recall - Voters can remove a representative/officer before the end of his term if he fails to discharge his duties.
Plebiscite - Method of obtaining the opinion of people on matters of Public importance. Usually used to solve territorial disputes. Eg: Scotland went for a plebiscite to get out of UK. 

India however follows Indirect democracy. Indirect democracy can take either Presidential or Parliamentary form. U.S.A follows Presidential form of democracy. Parliamentary system is followed in India, an idea borrowed from the British or the Westminster model.

In Parliamentary system of democracy, the executive is responsible for the legislature for all the policies and actions. Universal adult franchise, Periodic election, Rule of law (by A.V. Dicey) and  Impartial, Integrated and Independent judiciary are the key features of democracy of Indian polity. 

Ambedkar paid greater attention to social linkage among people than separation of powers and constitutional safeguards for democracy. The concept of power contained in his thinking has a direct relationship between social power and political power. He was conscious of the social and economic inequalities which corrode the national consciousness of the Indian people. Ambedkar said, “We must make our political democracy a social democracy as well. Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it, social democracy”.


5. Republic: Re-public :- Representation of Public.

Any democratic polity can be classified into two categories - Monarchy or Republic. Democratic Monarchy means, the supreme head of the state is the King and 'head of the state' is a hereditary position like in Britain. However, in a Democratic Republic, head of the state is 'President' and he/she is elected directly(like in USA) or indirectly like in India. President of India is elected indirectly for a period of 5 years.

A republic also means vesting political sovereignty in the people and not in an individual King. It also means that there is no privileged class and hence all offices being open to all citizens without discrimination.


6. Justice: 

The idea of justice in the Indian Constitution is embraced in three forms: Social, Economic and Political. This ideal of Justice has been borrowed from the Russian Revolution(1917-23). It has been enforced in the constitution through Fundamental rights and Directive Principles of State Policies.

Social Justice promises Indian citizens the immunity from discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, religion, sex, color, race and so on. It means that there will no special privileges extended to particular section of society and improvement in the conditions of backward classes.

Economic Justice promises that no individual or group will be discriminated on the basis of economic factors. It involves reduction and elimination of glaring inequalities in wealth, income and property. Social Justice with Economic Justice is called 'Distributive Justice'.

Political Justice: It means that there is no privileged class and all political offices including that of President and Prime Minister shall be open to all citizens without discrimination.
  

7. Liberty: 

The idea of Liberty in the Constitution is defined as the absence of restraints from performing activities and further providing opportunities for development on individuals in the society. These are enforced in Constitution through Fundamental rights. This ideal of Liberty has been borrowed from the French Revolution(1787-99). 

Ideal of Liberty promises liberty or freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. This does not give 'license' to do whatever one likes. Liberty is to be enjoyed with certain limitations. It is to be noted that liberty that is conceived by Preamble and Fundamental rights is not absolute but qualified.


8. Equality: 

The ideal of Equality means that there is no privileged class and hence all citizens are treated without discrimination. Also, there must be a provision for adequate opportunities for all individuals. The ideal of equality is enforced in constitution through Fundamental rights and Directive Principles of State Policies(DPSP). This ideal of Liberty has been borrowed from the French Revolution(1787-99). 

Ideal of Equality promises equality of status and opportunity. Article 14-18 of Constitution guarantees right to equality. Further, 

Article 39 states(DPSP): Equal pay for equal work, for men and women after securing livelihood.

Article 325 states: 'No person shall be declared ineligible for electoral rolls on the basis of caste, creed, religion, race, color or sex. 

Article 326 states: Elections to the Lok Sabha and state assemblies to be on the basis of adult suffrage. 


9. Fraternity:

The ideal of Fraternity simply means the sense of brotherhood(brotherhood+sisterhood) among the citizens of India. The ideal of equality is enforced in constitution through Fundamental rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles of State Policies(DPSP). This ideal of Liberty has been borrowed from the French Revolution(1787-99). 

The ideal of Fraternity promises: 

Dignity of individual: This means the constitution besides ensuring material betterment also promises to recognize the personality of individual as sacred. and,

Unity and Integrity of the country: It embraces both psychological and territorial integrity of the nation. It promotes sense of brotherhood and aims at overcoming communalism, regionalism, casteism, linguism etc.,

Additional info

Dicey thought that there were 3 facets to the rule of law:

"[N]o man is punishable or can be lawfully made to suffer in body or goods except for a distinct breach of law established in the ordinary legal manner before the ordinary Courts".

"[E]quality before the law, or the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by the ordinary Law Courts".

"[W]hereas under many foreign constitutions the rights of individuals flow, or appear to flow, from the articles of the constitution, in England the law of the constitution is the result, not the source of the rights of individuals."


'Preamble is the horoscope of the Constitution'  - K M Munshi, Constituent Assembly member

'Preamble is the soul of our Constitution'  - Pandit Thakur Das Bhargava, Constituent Assembly member.

Indian Constitution - Behind the scenes

This post marks the start of posts on Indian Polity. Before we jump into the ocean-size subject, let's take a glimpse of what happened before the Indian Constitution came into force i.e., January 26th 1950.

1934 A.D

The idea of Constituent Assembly was put forward for the first time by M. N. Roy, a pioneer of Communist movement in India and an advocate of Radical democratism. 

'A constituent assembly or a constitutional convention or constitutional assembly, is a body or assembly of representatives composed for the purpose of drafting or adopting a constitution.' 

1935 A.D

Indian National Congress(INC) officially demands the British to setup a constituent assembly to frame the constitution of India.

1940 A.D  

A change of government took place in Britain in May, 1940 and Winston Churchill became the prime minister (1940–45). As the war(WW-II) was taking a menacing turn congress offered to cooperate in the war if transfer of authority in India is done to an interim government. The governments response was a statement of the viceroy known as the august offer. On 8 August 1940, early in the Battle of Britain, the Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, made the so-called August Offer, a fresh proposal promising:

• The expansion of the Executive Council to include more Indians.

• The establishment of an advisory war council, giving full weight to minority opinion, and 

• The recognition of Indians' right to frame their own constitution (after the end of the war). But the constituent assembly will have both British officials and Indians from different states.

In return, it was hoped that all parties and communities in India would cooperate in Britain's war effort. The declaration marked an important advance over the existing state of things, as it recognised at least the natural and inherent right of the people of the country to determine the form of their future constitution, and explicitly promised dominion status. However, The Congress Working Committee and the Muslim League on August 21, 1940 rejected this offer, and asserted its demand for complete freedom from the imperial power. Muslim League further demanded for partition of India.

1942 A.D

Sir Stafford Cripps, member of the cabinet of Winston Churchill came to India with a proposal of the British Government on framing of an Independent Indian Constitution to be adopted after the WW II. Muslim League rejected this proposal demanding a partition of India into two separate states with two constituent assemblies. 

The main proposals of the Cripp's mission were as follows:

• An Indian Union with a dominion status would be set up. It would be free to decide its relations with the Commonwealth and free to participate in the United Nations and other international bodies.

• After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new constitution. Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.

• The British Government would accept the new constitution subject to two conditions.(i) any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and form a separate Union, and (ii) the new constitution- making body and the British Government would negotiate a treaty to effect the transfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.

• In the meantime, defense of India would remain in British hands and the governor-general’s powers would remain intact. 

1945 A.D

The Simla Conference was a 1945 meeting between Viceroy Archibald Wavell and the major political leaders of India at Simla, India. Convened to agree on and approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government. The conference broke down on the insistence of Jinnah that his party should have an exclusive right to nominate Muslim members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council. This was something which the Congress could not concede without repudiating its national composition. This scuttled the conference, and perhaps the last viable opportunity for a united, independent India. 

On June 14, 1945, Lord Wavell came out with a plan which had the following schemes: 

• A new Executive Council was to be formed at the Centre in which all but the Viceroy and the Commander in Chief will be Indians. This executive council was for the time being till a new permanent constitution could be agreed upon and come to force. 

• All portfolios except the Defense would be held by the Indian Members.

1946 A.D

The United Kingdom Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and plan for the transfer of power from the British Government to Indian leadership, providing India with independence. Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee, the then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom(Labour party), the mission consisted of Lord Pethick-Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A. V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty. Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, did not participate.

The Cabinet Mission's purpose: i. Hold preparatory discussions with elected representatives of British India and the Indian states in order to secure agreement as to the method of framing the constitution. ii. Set up a constitution body. iii. Set up an Executive Council with the support of the main Indian parties.

Plan of 16 May: Promulgated on 16 May 1946, the plan to create a united dominion of India as a loose confederation of provinces came to be known by the date of its announcement:

• A united Dominion of India would be given independence. Muslim-majority provinces would be grouped - Sind, Punjab and North-West Frontier Province would form one group, and Bengal and Assam would form another. Hindu-majority provinces in central and southern India would form another group.

• The Central government, stationed in Delhi, would be empowered to handle nationwide affairs, such as defense, currency, and diplomacy, while the rest of powers and responsibility would belong to the provinces, coordinated by groups.

Plan of 16 June: The plan of 16 May 1946 had envisaged a united India in line with Congress and Muslim League aspirations. But, it failed as INC feared that the idea of grouping India on basis of religion with intention of 'balancing' each other at central legislature would lead to communal distress. However, Muslim league was backing the idea of 'groups' to ensure the prevention of absolute rule of Hindus over Muslims. Reaching an impasse, the British proposed a second, alternative plan on 16 June 1946. This plan sought to arrange for India to be divided into Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority India that would later be renamed Pakistan. A list of princely states of India that would be permitted to accede to either dominion or attain independence was also drawn up. 

Constituent Assembly was finally constituted in November 1946 under the scheme formulated by the Cabinet Missions plan of 16th June.

Timeline: 

December 9th, 1946: First meeting of the constituent assembly. Total strength (389 = 296 British Indian seats and 93 Princely states seats). Muslim League boycotts demanding for a separate Muslim nation. Princely states stay away from the constituent assembly. 

December 13th, 1946: Jawaharlal Nehru moved the Historic Objectives Resolution which would later become the core of PREAMBLE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION. 

January 22nd, 1947: The Objectives Resolution was unanimously adopted by the Assembly.

April 28th, 1947: Representatives of six princely states join the constituent assembly.

June 3rd, 1947: The historic Mountbatten plan for partition of Country was accepted by the members.   All the princely states and the members of Muslim Leagues from Indian Dominion also entered the assembly.

July, 1947: Adopted the national flag of DOMINION OF INDIA. The flag is based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya. It continued to be the flag of REPUBLIC OF INDIA.

August 15th, 1947

Indian Independence Act, 1947 made India attain 'dominion' status from its previous 'colony' status. The Indian Independence Act made the Assembly fully sovereign body, legislative body. Whenever the Assembly met as a Constituent body, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the Chair and when it met as legislative body G.V Mavlankar would chair. Muslim league members left the assembly making the strength (299 = 229 Indian Provinces seats + 70 Princely state seats).

May 1949: Constituent Assembly ratified the India's membership of Commonwealth.

November 26th, 1949: Indian Constitution was adopted.

January 24th, 1950: Indian National Anthem was adopted.

January 26th, 1950: Indian Constitution came into force. 

Till August 15th,1947: India was a colony of British Empire.

From 15th August, 1947 - January 26th, 1950: India was a dominion under British.

After January 26th, 1950: India became sovereign democratic republic. Article 395 of the Indian constitution therefore repeals the Indian Independence Act, 1947. Hence republic of India came into being replacing the Government of India Act, 1935.

FYI: Pakistan remained dominion under British from 14th August 1947 and 23rd March 1956.  

The Mughal Empire (1526 - 1857 AD)

After Sultan Ibrahim's tragic death on the battle field, Babur named himself emperor over Sultan Ibrahim’s territory. Babur thus ended the Sultanate of Delhi and founded what is known as the Mughal Empire. From our childhood we have heard of the Great King Akbar and we are well aware he was a Mughal Emperor. We use the term 'Mughal' with utmost ease. Let's find out the story behind the 'Mughal' calling! 


Babur, grandfather of Akbar was a descendent of Mongol rulers. With the Turko-Mongol invader Timur on his father's side and other Turko-Mongol ruler Chagatai, second son of Ghengis Khan on his Mother's side. Babur has in fact invaded India to claim and take over what is originally the fief land of Timur given to Khizr Khan Sayyid. And the term 'Mughal' was a corrupted result of mixture of languages Persian and Arabic languages for the word 'Mongol'. 'Mughal' was originally used to refer to the Emperor and as an extension to the Empire. Hence the phrase 'Mughal Empire'. However, the founders of the Empire were very much planning to call the Empire as the 'Timurid Empire' as it was then previously called. Although Babur hailed from Mongol origin, his tribe had embraced Turkic and Persian culture, converted to Islam and resided in Turkestan and Khorasan. This will be evident in their culture, ethos, arts and architecture right from Babur to Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.   


It is to be noted that before the battle of Panipat in 1526 AD against the last Lodi King, Babur has established his rule in Kabul and Kandahar in Afghanistan. He has entered India through the Khyber pass (Aryans too have entered India through Bolan and Khyber pass in 1000 B.C). After Killing Ibrahim Lodi, Babur established his rule and started further conquests. 


Zahir-ud-din Mohammad Babur (r. 1526 - 1530 AD)

To throw some light on Babur before the Battle of Panipat, He was born and raised to be the Sultan of Ferghana at a young age of 12 after the freakish death of his Father Umar Sheikh Mirza in 1495 A.D. Ferghana is a kingdom in Uzbekistan. Almost all the neighboring states belonged either to the descendants of Timur or Ghengis Khan. However there was a very high competition between the royal princes to conquer Samarkand which lies to the west of Ferghana. Babur besieged and took over Samarkand when he was 15 years old i.e in 1497 A.D. This victory gave him confidence to grow high. But soon he fell ill and rested in Samarkand for few days when Ferghana was attacked and plundered. To save his state, Babur left to Ferghana. Taking advantage of this, other princes attacked Samarkand and left Babur with neither Ferghana nor Samarkand. With a band of followers, Babur roamed about mountain paths with many short lived victories for next few years. In 1501 A.D Babur lay siege and took over Samarkand but soon got defeated by his formidable rival Mohammad Shaybani. Thus, being abandoned, Babur roamed about and finally reached Tashkent (Present capital of Uzbekistan) which was then ruled by his maternal uncle in 1501 A.D. In 1502 A.D, Babur overcame his life long obsession of getting back Samarkand and started gathering an army of his own to try his luck somewhere else.



At this juncture in history, kabul in Afghanistan was ruled by Ulugh Begh Mirza of Arghun dynasty who died and left an infant to become the King. Infant was dethroned by a Mukin Begh who had strong opposition from the local populace. Using this to his advantage, babur and his army crossed the Hindukush mountains and defeated Mukin Begh to emerge as the Sultan of Kabul and therefore finally established a throne of his own. From Kabul, Babur united with his distant relative Sultan Husayn Mirza of Herat(Then, Muslim capital of the East) and planned for an attack against Shaybani. However death of Husayn in 1506 A.D resulted Babur to drop the plan. Two sons of Mirza who were not willing to take up the plan, they invited Babur, where he was disgusted by the vices and luxuries of the city, however he marvelled at the intellectual abundance there, which he stated was "filled with learned and matched men". He became acquainted with the work of the Chagatai poet Mir Ali Shir Nava'i, who encouraged the use of Chagatai as a literary language. Nava'i's proficiency with the language, which he is credited with founding, may have influenced Babur in his decision to use it for his memoirs. He spent two months there before being forced to leave due to diminishing resources; it later was overrun by Shaybani and the Mirzas fled. 


After the downfall of Herat, Babur emerged as the only ruler who was Timur's descendent and thus all other princes sought refugee under him. Thus, Babur was called 'Badshaah' (Emperor). Although the title was insignificant as Babur lost all his ancestral lands and his own Kabul was under threat from Shaybani. He prevailed during a potential rebellion in Kabul, but two years later a revolt among some of his leading generals drove him out of Kabul. Escaping with very few companions, Babur soon returned to the city, capturing Kabul again and regaining the allegiance of the rebels. Meanwhile, Shaybani was defeated and killed by Ismail I, Shah of 'Shia' Safavid Persia, in 1510 A.D. After the death of Shaybani, Babur and his relatives took this as their chance and made attempts to gain back their ancestral lands. In this process, Babur and the Shah of Persia (Now, Iran) developed strong relations which would last long. In 1513 A.D, after appointing his brother as the in-charge of Kabul, Babur again attacks and gains Samarkand only to get defeated once again by other Uzbeks. In the same period Babur gained the technology of Matchlock Musket from Ottomans who were then the enemies of Persia.


In the later period, Babur failing thrice on Samarkand and the surrounding areas, chooses to enter India and take over his ancestral lands which belonged to the Timurid dynasty. In 1519 A.D he reached Chenab and by 1523 A.D he was able to take over Punjab and the near-by regions. Soon in 1524 A.D after he came to know that Daulat Khan Lodi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodi who invited Babur to invade Delhi) was driven out of the Kingdom by Ibrahim, he burned down Lahore(over a period of two days) and sent a messenger to Ibrahim Lodi demanding him to return the Timurid lands. He appointed Alam Khan, another rebel uncle of Ibrahim as the Governor of Lahore. When Alam Khan was overthrown and fled to Kabul, Babur supplied Daulat Khan and Alam Khan with troops more than 30,000 army which had a small battalion of Matchlock Musketeers. The battle took place at the historic place of  Panipat hence the name.

Babur wrote in his memoirs about his victory :

"By the grace of the Almighty God, this difficult task was made easy to me and that mighty army, in the space of a half a day was laid in dust."

Although establishing his rule as the first Mughal Emperor, Babur was faced with rebellions from Mewat (Hindu Kings converted to Muslims) and Mewar Kings (Rajputs) and other Rajput Kings. These rajput kings on hearing the downfall of the huge Lodi army planned to reestablish the Rajput rule in India which was lost after the attack of Mohammad of Ghor in 1191 A.D followed by the death of Prithviraj Chauhan I. At the same time the army of Babur was demoralized by the hot summers of India and were willing to return to their home lands of Central Asia. Babur was successful in motivating and recharging the spirits of his own army by proclaiming himself as the Ghazi(Religious Warrior). This rajput rebellions led to the Battle of Khanwa in 1527 A.D. The rajputs were led by Rana Sangha of Mewar. Babur emerged victorious in-spite of the enemy's huge army which was essentially powerful than that of Ibrahim Lodi's. The Rajputs were thus disposed off but Babur had still to deal with the Afghan rulers of Bihar and Bengal. In 1529 A.D Babur defeated the combined Afghan forces at the Battle of Ghagra in May, 1529 A.D.

The Battle of Ghagra in 1529 A.D was the last war of Babur in India. The battle was fought with the Afghans, on the confluence of the Ganga and its tributary, the Ghagara, on 6th May, 1529. Sultan Mahmud Lodi(Brother of Ibrahim Lodi), who had escaped from Khanwa after Rana Sanga’s defeat, established himself in Bihar and gathered a large army which was estimated at one lakh strong. Anxious to put an end to the Afghan threat once for all, Babur decided to bring them to battle. But he was at peace with Nusrat Shah of Bengal with whom the Afghan chiefs, headed by Mahmud Lodi, had taken shelter. So he opened negotiations with Nusrat Shah, but nothing came out of it. He was obliged, therefore, to send an ultimatum asking for a passage and in the event of refusal, holding him responsible for the consequences. 


The Afghans were defeated. A treaty was now concluded between Babur and Nusrat Shah agreed not to give shelter to Babur’s enemies. This was Babur’s last battle in India. As the result of this contest he became the sovereign of Bihar, and the Afghan chiefs joined him with their troops. He was now in possession of this country from the Indus to Bihar and from the Himalayas to Gwalior and Chanderi. The Mughals had obtained possession of Multan, and, therefore, in the north-western corner of the country only Sindh remained beyond the Mughal rule. 

Babri Masjid, Ayodhya

Babur is popularly believed to have demolished the Sri Ram Temple at Ayodhya and built Babri Mosque in Ayodhya, India, which was later demolished in 1992 A.D by activists. Soldier of fortune as he was, Babur was not the less a man of fine literary taste and critical perception. His autobiography is known as Tuzk-e-Babri (also Baburnama, Memoirs of Babur) originally written in Chagatai language, is an example of his literary capacity. After Babur fell seriously ill, Humayun, his eldest son, was summoned from his Jagir(feudal land). Babur died at the age of 47 on 1530 A.D, and was succeeded by Humayun. In accordance with his will, his body was moved to Kabul, Afghanistan there it lies in Bagh-e Babur (Babur Gardens). 


Humayun (r. 1530 - 1540 A.D and 1555-1556 A.D)

Humayun was the son of Babur and ascended to the throne after his father's death. Babur has left Humayun with great big results of his successful conquests which included Kabul, Kandahar, Lahore, Panipat, Delhi, Agra, Amber and more. But Babur did not have the time to consolidate his successes into an Empire. So the unconsolidated empire was passed on to Humayun, who would then go on to leave a legacy of more than 1 million square kilometer lands to the next generation. Like Babur, Humayun also suffered initial defeats in his own land. By this time, Portuguese had their strong-hold settlements in the north-west India near Gujarat. Portuguese have entered India in 1498 A.D. The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 when Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on Malabar Coast. 


When ascended to the throne, Humayun had threats from two significant kingdoms, one on the east - The Pasthun noble(Afghan), Sultan Sher shah Suri of Suri dynasty; and the other on the west - Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat. Humayun, Sher Shah Suri and Sultan Bahadur expanded their kingdoms during the first five years of Humayun's rule. Humayun has by then acquired the Matchlock Muskets from the Ottomans. Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat has acquired the Matchlock Muskets with the help of Portuguese in return for lands for their settlements. 


After getting to know that Sultan Bahadur is planning an attack on his empire, Humayun responds and immediately raids and attacks Gujarat, taking control of the forts of Mandu (in present day Madhya pradesh) and Champaner (in present day Gujarat). In stead of attacking Sultan Bahadur and taking over the entire empire, Humayun consolidates his territories. Sultan Bahadur meanwhile takes refuge with Portuguese. Taking advantage of the situation, Sher shah Suri attacks Agra, on hearing this news, Humayun with his army marches towards Agra to defend his Kingdom. While Humayun was able to save Agra, his troops were delayed at the fort of Chunar(which was occupied by Sher shah Suri's son to attack Humayun's marching army from behind). Chunar was eventually saved, however Sher Shah Suri occupied Gaur (City in present Bengal). Gaur was then the rice bowl of the Mughal Empire and Sher Shah Suri emptied the granaries of Gaur. 


By the time Humayun reached the place, Sher shah withdrew to east and Humayun shut himself up for a considerable time in his Harem(place where royal wives live), and indulged himself in every kind of luxury. Meanwhile one of Humayun's four surviving brothers, 19-year Hindal promises Humayun that he shall protect his troops from the rear. Soon Hindal breaks his promise and reaches Agra to assume himself as the Sultan. When Humayun sent the grand Mufti(Muslim legal expert), Sheikh Buhlul, to reason with him, the Sheikh was killed. Further provoking the rebellion, Hindal ordered that the Khutba or sermon in the main mosque at Agra be read in his name, a sign of assumption of sovereignty. Further, he asks the troops protecting Humanyun's army from the rear to withdraw to Agra thus giving Sher Shah Suri an opportunity to draw an attack. Humayun's other brother, Kamran marched from his territory of Punjab to protect Humayun besides having treacherous intentions of claiming stake in his falling Empire.



Picking up on the opportunity, Sher Shah Suri attacks Humayun in an entrenched battle in Chausua near Benares. By the end of the day Humayun was successful in making peace talks with the help of his ambassador, Mohammad Aziz. However, in the late of the night Sher Shah attacks the unready army of Humayun. Humayun swims across Ganges in his air-filled 'water skin' and reaches Agra. Humayun finds all three of his brothers on his return to Agra. He pardons them as he did many times in the past. With Sher shah's army marching towards Agra, Humayun and Kamran get in to an argument. Kamran then leaves to Lahore(Punjab) after Humayun decides to build a new army under his own name. Humayun and his brothers Hindal and Askari march towards Sher Shah's army at meet on the east of Agra at Kannauj. The Battle of kannauj took place on 17th May 1540 A.D. Loosing the battle all three brothers flee back to Lahore. Sher Shah thus established the Sur Dynasty.


The four brothers were united in Lahore, but every day they were informed that Sher Shah was getting closer and closer. When he reached Sirhind, Humayun sent an ambassador carrying the message "I have left you the whole of Hindustan (i.e. the lands to the East of Punjab, comprising most of the Ganges Valley). Leave Lahore alone, and let Sirhind be a boundary between you and me." Sher Shah, however, replied "I have left you Kabul. You should go there." Kabul was the capital of the empire of Humayun's brother Kamran Mirza, who was far from willing to hand over any of his territories to his brother. Instead, Kamran approached Sher Shah, and proposed that he actually revolt against his brother and side with Sher Shah in return for most of the Punjab. Sher Shah dismissed his help, believing it not to be required, though word soon spread to Lahore about the treacherous proposal and Humayun was urged to make an example of Kamran and kill him. Humayun refused, citing the last words of his father, Babur "Do nothing against your brothers, even though they may deserve it."


Following Humayun's many adversities faced to stay away from Sher Shah Suri Humayun and his pregnant wife Hamida reached the Emir(amir) of Sindh whom he appointed. The Emir Hussein Umrani welcomed Humayun's presence and was loyal to Humayun just as he had been loyal to Babur. Whilst in the oasis garrison of Umerkot in Sindh, Hamida daughter of noble Sindhi, gave birth to Akbar on 25 October 1542, the heir-apparent to the 34-year old Humayun. The date was special because Humayun consulted his Astronomer to utilize the astrolabe and check the location of the planets. 


In 1543 A.D, with the help of Emir Hussein Umrani, Humayun builds an army and starts regaining his lost territories. He marched towards kandahar and then Kabul gaining thousands of soldiers and supporters to defeat the Sur Dynasty and reestablish the Mughal Empire. Humayun goes on to claim himself as the rightful heir to the Timurid throne of Babur. In Kamran Mirza's territory(which includes Kabul and Kandahar), Hindal Mirza had been placed under house arrest in Kabul after refusing to have the Khutba recited in Kamran Mirza's name. His other brother Askari Mirza was now ordered to gather an army and march against Humayun. Akbar was left behind in camp close to Kandahar for, as it was December it would have been too cold and dangerous to include the 14-month-old toddler in the forthcoming march through the dangerous and snowy mountains of the Hindu Kush. Askari Mirza found Akbar in the camp, and embraced him, and allowed his own wife to parent him, she apparently started treating him as her own. Once again Humayun turned toward Kandahar where his brother Kamran Mirza was in power, but he received no help and had to seek refuge with the Shah of Persia. Humayun along with his wife and 40 men had to seek refuge with the Safavid Dynasty rulers who helped them to reach Herat(Persia). It took a month long journey for them to reach Herat during which they were again subjected to hardships due to lack of resources. Once they reached Herat, their status changed and they were treated as royal guests by the Persian rulers.


Upon entering the city his army was greeted with an armed escort, and they were treated to lavish food and clothing. They were given fine accommodations and the roads were cleared and cleaned before them. Shah Tahmasp, unlike Humayun's own family, actually welcomed the Mughal, and treated him as a royal visitor. Here Humayun went sightseeing and was amazed at the Persian artwork and architecture he saw. Much of this was the work of the Timurid Sultan Husayn Bayqarah and his ancestor, princess Gauhar Shad, thus he was able to admire the work of his relatives and ancestors at first hand. He was introduced to the work of the Persian miniaturists, and Kamaleddin Behzad had two of his pupils join Humayun in his court. Humayun was amazed at their work and asked if they would work for him if he were to regain the sovereignty of Hindustan: they agreed. With so much going on Humayun did not even meet the Shah until July, some six months after his arrival in Persia. After a lengthy journey from Herat the two met in Qazvin(The then capital of Iran. Now called the Caligraphy capital of Iran) where a large feast and parties were held for the event. The meeting of the two monarchs is depicted in a famous wall-painting in the Chehel Sotoun (Forty Columns) palace in Esfahan.


Shah Tahmasp of Persia urges Humayun to convert to Shia muslim. Reluctant but with no option, Humayun takes up shia islam to save his troops. Although the Mughals initially disagreed to their conversion they knew that with this outward acceptance of Shi'ism, Shah Tahmasp was eventually prepared to offer Humayun more substantial support. When Humayun's brother, Kamran Mirza, offered to cede Kandahar to the Persians in exchange for Humayun, dead or alive, Shah Tahmasp refused. Instead the Shah staged a celebration for Humayun, with 300 tents, an imperial Persian carpet, 12 musical bands and 'meat of all kinds'. Here the Shah announced that all this, and 12,000 elite cavalry were his to lead an attack on his brother Kamran. All that Shah Tahmasp asked for was that, if Humayun's forces were victorious, Kandahar would be his. 


Thus Humayun with the persian Safavid aid, goes on to raid Kandahar then being ruled by Askari Mirza(his brother) and lays siege for two weeks. Then he goes on to raid Kabul ruled by Kamran Mirza and defeats him. In both battles, there was not much fight as the soldiers of Humayun's brother switched loyalty to join his army. In November 1545, Hamida and Humayun were reunited with their son Akbar, and held a huge feast. They also held another, larger, feast in the child's honour when he was circumcised. His youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, formerly the most disloyal of his siblings, died fighting on his behalf. His brother Askari Mirza was shackled in chains at the behest of his nobles and aides. He was allowed go on Hajj, and died en route in the desert outside Damascus. 


Humayun's other brother, Kamran Mirza, had repeatedly sought to have Humayun killed. In 1552 Kamran Mirza attempted to make a pact with Islam Shah, Sher Shah's successor, but was apprehended by a Gakhar. The Gakhars were one of the minority of tribal groups who had consistently remained loyal to their oath to the Mughals. Sultan Adam of the Gakhars handed Kamran Mirza over to Humayun. Humayun was inclined to forgive his brother. However he was warned that allowing Kamran Mirza's repeated acts of treachery to go unpunished could foment rebellion amongst his own supporters. So, instead of killing his brother, Humayun had Kamran Mirza blinded which would end any claim by the latter to the throne. Humayun sent Kamran Mirza on Hajj, as he hoped to see his brother thereby absolved of his offences. However Kamran Mirza died close to Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula in 1557.


Sher Shah Suri of Sur Dynasty had died in 1545; his son and successor Islam Shah died too, in 1554. These two deaths left the dynasty reeling and disintegrating, while in many cities leaders tried to stake a claim for independence. This was a perfect opportunity for the Mughals to march back to India.The Mughal Emperor Humayun, gathered a vast army and attempted the challenging task of retaking the throne in Delhi. Humayun placed the army under the able leadership of Bairam Khan. This was a wise move given Humayun's own record of military ineptitude and Bairam was to prove himself a great tactician. Humayun and the army led by Bairam khan marched to raid and attack the Sur dynasty, They were unopposed in almost all of Punjab. The fort of Rohtas, which was built in 1541–43 by Sher Shah Suri to crush the Gakhars who were loyal to Humayun, was surrendered without a shot by a treacherous commander. The walls of the Rohtas Fort measure up to 12.5 meters in thickness and up to 18.28 meters in height. They extend for 4 km and feature 68 semi-circular bastions. Its sandstone gates, both massive and ornate, are thought to have exerted a profound influence on Mughal military architecture.


The only major battle faced by Humayun's armies was against Sikander Suri in Sirhind, where Bairam Khan employed a tactic whereby he engaged his enemy in open battle, but then retreated quickly in apparent fear. When the enemy followed after them they were surprised by entrenched defensive positions and were easily annihilated.From here on most towns and villages chose to welcome the invading army as it made its way to the capital. On 23 July 1555, Humayun once again sat on Babur's throne in Delhi.


With all of Humayun's brothers now dead, there was no fear of another usurping his throne during his military campaigns. He was also now an established leader, and could trust his generals. With this new-found strength Humayun embarked on a series of military campaigns aimed at extending his reign over areas in eastern and western India. Humayun returned from exile in Persia with thousands of Persians soldiers and nobles. This influx increased the cultural and political influences of the Persians in Mughal Empire. It also applied to the administration of the empire. Persian methods of governance were imported into Kashmir during the remainder of Humayun's reign. The system of revenue collection was improved by following both the Persian model and that of the Delhi Sultanate. The Persian arts became very influential, and Persian-style miniatures were produced at Mughal (and subsequently Rajput) courts. The Chaghatai language, in which Babur had written his memoirs, disappeared almost entirely from use by of the courtly elite, and Akbar could not speak it.


On 27 January 1556, Humayun, with his arms full of books, was descending the staircase from his library when the muezzin announced the Adhan (the call to prayer). It was his habit, wherever he heard the summons, to bow his knee in holy reverence. Trying to kneel, he caught his foot in his robe, tumbled down several steps and hit his temple on a rugged stone edge. He died three days later. His body was laid to rest in Purana Quila initially, but because of attack by Hemu on Delhi and capture of Purana Qila, Humayun's body was exhumed by the fleeing army and transferred to Kalanaur in Punjab where Akbar was coronated. His tomb stands in Delhi, where he was later buried in a grand way. Humayun's tomb stands as the UNESCOs World Heritage Site today in Delhi. 

Delhi Sultanate, Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties (1414- 1526 AD)

The Sayyid dynasty (1414 - 1451 AD):

The Sayyid dynasty was a Turkic dynasty. It ruled Delhi Sultanate from 1415 to 1451. The Timur invasion and plunder had left Delhi Sultanate in shambles, and little is known about the rule by Sayyid dynasty. According to historian William Hunter, the Delhi Sultanate had an effective control of only a few miles around Delhi.

The dynasty was established by Khizr Khan, deputised by Timur to be the governor of Multan (Punjab). Khizr Khan took Delhi from Daulat Khan Lodi on May 28, 1414 AD and founded the Sayyid dynasty (his clan was claimed to be the descendants of Prophet Mohammad, hence called Sayyids). But he did not take up the title of sultan and nominally, continued to be a Rayat-i-Ala (vassal) of the Timurids, initially of Timur and after his death, his successor Shah Rukh, grandson of Timur. Khizer Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarrak Khan after his death on May 20, 1421 AD. Mubarrak Khan styled himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah in his coins. A detailed account of his reign is available in the Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi written by Yahya-bin-Ahmad Sirhindi. After the death of Mubarak Shah, his nephew Muhammad Khan ascended the throne and styled himself as Sultan Muhammad Shah. Just before his death, he called his son Ala-ud-Din from Badaun and nominated him as his successor.

Rulers and Reigns:


Khizr Khan 1414–1421 AD

Timur's nominee captured Delhi and still continued to be vassal under Timur and later his grandson, Shah rukh. He is the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and surrounding districts.

Mubarak Shah 1421–1434 AD

He succeeded Khizr at the throne after his successful expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was killed by the nobles in his own court.

Muhammad Shah 1434–1445 AD

The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but he could not survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to rule a meagre area of around 30 miles and rest of the Sultanate was ruled by the nobles. The tomb of Mohammed Shah, the last of powerful Sultans of the Sayyid dynasty, was built in 1444 AD by Ala-ud-din Shah as a tribute to Mohammed Shah in a place which will later be called in history as the 'Lodi Gardens'.

Muhammad shah tomb in Lodi Gardens

Ala-ud-din shah 1445-1451 AD

The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and retired voluntarily. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few surrounding areas.


With Sayyid dynasty’s failing powers, Islam’s history in Indian subcontinent underwent a profound change. The previously dominant Sunni sect of Islam became diluted, alternate Muslim sects such as 'Shia' rose, and new competing centers of Islamic culture took roots beyond Delhi. The last ruler of this dynasty, Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi sulatanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on April 19, 1451 AD and left for Badaun. He continued to live there till his death in 1478 AD.

This brings us to the end of fourth of the five unrelated dynasties to rule Delhi Sultanate.

The Lodi Dynasty (1451 - 1526 AD):


To start with, Lodi dynasty is the only Afghan dynasty of the five unrelated dynasties to rule Delhi Sultanate. To understand how these Afghans took over the throne, we have to know little bit about the history of the first ruler of the Lodi Dynasty - Bahlul khan Lodi. Bahul's grandfather settled in Multan and was working under the then Governor of Multan under the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq(1351-88). His elder son 'Malik Sultan Shah Lodi' later served under the first Sayyid ruler Khizr Khan and distinguished himself by killing one of  Khizr's worst enemies. He was rewarded with the title of Islam Khan and in 1419 AD appointed the governor of Sirhind. Bahlul, the son of Malik Kala, the younger brother of Malik Sultan was married to Malik Sultan's daughter.


In his youth, Bahlul was involved in the trading of horses and once sold his finely bred horses to the Sayyid dynasty Sultan Mohammad Shah. As a payment he was granted a pargana(Arabic. A group of villages) and raised to the status of amir. After the death of Malik Sultan, he became the governor of Sirhind. He was allowed to add Lahore to his charge. Once, Sultan Muhammad Shah asked for his help when the Malwa Sultan Mahmud Shah I invaded his territory. Bahlul joined the imperial army with 20,000 mounted soldiers. By his cleverness, he was able to project himself as a victor over the army of the Malwa Sultan and Sultan Muhammad Shah conferred on him the title of Khan-i-Khanan. He also accepted Bahlul's occupation over a large part of Punjab. In 1443 and 1447, during the reign of last Sayyid ruler Sultan Alam or Ala-ud-din shah Shah, Bahlul attacked Delhi but he did not succeed. Finally, when Alam Shah retired to Badaun in 1448, a minister of Alam Shah, Hamid Khan invited him to occupy the throne of Delhi. After the voluntary abdication of the throne by Alam Shah, Bahlul Shah ascended the throne of Delhi on 19 April 1451 and adopted the title of Bahlul Shah Ghazi.

Bahlul Khan Lodi (r. 1451-1489)

Bahlul Khan Lodi ascended the throne of the Delhi sultanate on April 19, 1451. The most important event of his reign was the conquest of Jaunpur(Sharqi Dynasty). Bahlul spent most of his time in fighting against the Sharqi dynasty and ultimately annexed it. He placed his eldest surviving son Barbak on the throne of Jaunpur in 1486.

 He was nominated by his father to succeed him and was crowned sultan on July 15, 1489. He founded Agra in 1504 and constructed mosques. He shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra. He abolished corn duties and patronized trade and commerce. He was a poet of repute. He composed under the pen-name of Gulruk. He was also patron of learning and ordered Sanskrit work in medicine to be translated into Persian. He curbed the individualistic tendencies of his Afghan nobles and compelled them to submit their accounts to state audit. He was, thus, able to infuse vigor and discipline in the administration. His greatest achievement was the conquest and annexation of Bihar. He was a kind and generous ruler. He was always prepared to help his subjects. Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning. He died in 1488. The tomb of the founder of the Lodi dynasty lies close to the shrine of the noted Sufi saint, Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Delhi, in a locality that goes by his name, 'Chirag Delhi'.

Chirag-e-Delhi

Sikandar Lodi (r.1489–1517)

Sikandar Lodi (born Nizam Khan), the second son of Bahlul, succeeded him after his death on July 17, 1489 and took up the title Sikandar Shah. Sikandar was the son of Sultan Bahlul Khan Lodi and Bibi Ambha, the daughter of a Hindu goldsmith of Sirhind. Sikandar was of Pashtun origin through his father. He became Sultan upon the death of his father on July 17, 1489. His rise to power was troubled, as his older brother, Barbak Shah, the viceroy of Jaunpur, also laid claim to the throne, even though their father had nominated Sikandar. However, he was able to ascend to the throne without massive bloodshed, and even allowed his brother to continue ruling Jaunpur. He also settled differences with an uncle, Alam Khan, who was also suspected of seeking to seize power. Sikandar was a capable ruler who encouraged trade across his territory, but discriminated against Hindu subjects. He expanded Lodi territory into the regions of Gwalior and Bihar. He made a treaty with Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah and his kingdom of Bengal. In 1503, he commissioned the building of the present-day city of Agra. Agra was founded by him. Further, he reconstructed the top two floors of the Qutub Minar with marble architecture.

He has a reputation for religious intolerance, and is said to have burned Bodhan, a Hindu sadhu alive for saying that Islam and Hinduism were equally acceptable to God. 'The History of the Delhi Sultanate' by M.M. Syed notes that Sikandar Lodi frequently razed temples and erected mosques in their place, for example at Mandrail, Utgir, and Narwar. In Mathura, he prevented Hindus from bathing in the sacred ghats and from shaving. Sikandar was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi Temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed.


According to sources, Sikandar Lodi made Hindus learn Persian and gave them office jobs. He wrote poetry in Persian using the pen name Gulrukhi. He introduced auditing in accounts. He took good care of justice and agriculture for the welfare of people. He introduced a system of Gaz-i-sikandari, means 32 digit for measuring cultivated lands. Among the administrative changes made by Sikandar Lodi was the installation of Persian language as the official language for the accountancy in India. Publication of the Iran Pakistan Institute of Persian Studies.

Sikandar Lodi tried to conquer the Gwalior Fort, and he attacked five times, but was foiled on all occasions by the king of Gwalior Maharaja Mansingh. He developed Agra as his second capital (after Delhi), as it took a lot of time to travel from Delhi to Gwalior. Agra was known as Shiraz of India during Sikandar Lodi's time. Finally he attacked a small region, near Gwalior named Narwar, and he had to wait 11 months at the gates of the Narwar fort, after 11 months when the people found that nothing had left to eat, they surrendered to Sikandar Lodi. Once again he attacked on Gwalior, and was defeated by Maharaja Mansingh and his wife Mrignayani. He died in 1517 and has an elaborate burial tomb that resides in Lodi Gardens, Delhi. He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance. In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus.

Sikandar Lodi Tomb

Lodi Gardens is a park in Delhi, India. Spread over 90 acres, it contains, Mohammed Shah's Tomb(of Sayyid Dynasty), Sikander Lodi's Tomb, Sheesh Gumbad(Originally, the monument was richly decorated with blue tiles. It is not known who lies buried here. It was perhaps built during Sikandar Lodi's reign (A.D. 1489-1517) ) and Bara/Bada Gumbad(Big dome. Built by Sikandar Lodi in 1490 AD) architectural works of the 15th century by Lodhis, an Afghan dynasty, that ruled parts of northern India and Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of modern day Pakistan, from 1451 to 1526. The site is now protected by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI). 

Bada Gumbad

Shish Gumbad

Ibrahim Lodi (r. 1517-1526 AD)

Ibrahim Lodi was an ethnic Pashtun. He attained the throne upon the death of his father, Sikandar, but was not blessed with the same ruling capability. He faced a number of rebellions. The Mewar ruler Rana Sangram Singh extended his empire right up to western Uttar Pradesh and threatened to attack Agra. There was rebellion in the East also. The problem Ibrahim Lodhi had when he ascended the throne in 1517 were the Afghan nobles. Some nobles backed Ibrahim’s older brother, Jalaluddin, to take up arms against his brother in the area in the east at Jaunpur. Ibrahim gathered military support and defeated his brother by the end of the year. After this incident, he arrested Afghan nobles who opposed him. He then proceeded by appointing new administrators, who were his own men. Other Afghan nobles supported the governor of Bihar, Dariya Khan against Sultan Ibrahim which resulted in many rebellions.

Another factor that caused uprisings against Ibrahim Lodi, was his lack of an apparent successor. His own uncle, Alam Khan, betrayed Ibrahim by supporting the Mughal invader Babur.

Babur claimed to be the true and rightful Monarch of the lands of the Lodi dynasty. He believed himself the rightful heir to the throne of Timur, and it was Timur who had originally left Khizr Khan in charge of his vassal in the India, who became the leader, or Sultan, of the Delhi Sultanate, founding the Sayyid dynasty. The Sayyid dynasty, however, had been ousted by Ibrahim Lodi, an Afghan, and Babur wanted it returned to the Timurids. Indeed, while actively building up the troop numbers for an invasion of the India he sent a Memo to Ibrahim asking to returning the lands of the Delhi Sultanate. Following the unsurprising reluctance of Ibrahim to accept the terms of this "offer," and though in no hurry to launch an actual invasion, Babur made several preliminary incursions and also seized Kandahar — a strategic city if Delhi Sultan was to defend. The siege of Kandahar, however, lasted far longer than anticipated, and it was only almost three years later that Kandahar and its Citadel (backed by enormous natural features) were taken, and that minor assaults in India recommenced. During this series of skirmishes and battles an opportunity for a more extended expedition presented itself.

After being assured of the cooperation of Alam Khan (Ibrahim’s uncle) and Daulat Khan, Governor of the Punjab, Babur gathered his army. During the years 1508-19 AD, Shah Ismail I (Shah of Iran) suffered a large defeat when his large cavalry-based army was obliterated at the Battle of Chaldiran by the Ottoman Empire's new weapon, the matchlock musket. Both Shah Ismail and Babur, it appears, were swift in acquiring this new technology for themselves. Somewhere during these years Babur introduced

Matchlockmen

matchlocks into his army, and allowed an Ottoman, Ustad Ali, to train his troops, who were then known as Matchlockmen, in their use. Babur's memoirs give accounts of battles where the opposition forces mocked his troops, never having seen a gun before, because of the noise they made and the way no arrows, spears, etc. appeared to come from the weapon when fired. These guns allowed small armies to make large gains on enemy territory. Babur, however, had won two revolts, one in Kandahar and another in Kabul, and was careful to pacify the local population after victories, following local traditions and aiding widows and orphans. Pacifying the local population was an important step as their rebellions would weaken Babur's attempts.

Battle of Panipat:

Babur wanted to fight Sultan Ibrahim because he wanted Sultan Ibrahim’s power and territory. They did not want to fight against each other because of religious affairs. Babur and Sultan Ibrahim were both Sunni Muslims. Babur and his army of 24,000 men marched to the battlefield armed with muskets and artillery. Sultan Ibrahim prepared to fight by gathering 100,000 men (well armed but with no guns) and 1,000 elephants. This is known as the Battle of Panipat in 1526. Sultan Ibrahim was at a disadvantage, not only because of his out-moded infantry, but also the inter-necine(within the Kingdom) rivalries. Even though he had more men, Sultan Ibrahim had never fought in a war against gunpowder weapons. Strategically, Sultan Ibrahim didn’t know what to do militarily. Babur had the advantage right from the start. Sultan Ibrahim perished on the battlefield along with 20,000 of his men in April 1526 AD. No Sultan of India except Sultan Ibrahim had been killed on the battle field.


After Sultan Ibrahim's tragic death on the battle field, Babur named himself emperor over Sultan Ibrahim’s territory, instead of placing Alam Khan (Ibrahim’s uncle) on the throne. Sultan Ibrahim’s death lead to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. Babur continued to engage in more military campaigns.


This brings us to the end of Delhi Sultanate and the start of another The Mughal Empire!