Around the Earth, Part II

Stratosphere (14-50 Kms): Stratosphere is a layer above the Tropopause extending up to 50 Kms above the surface. It is comparatively lesser turbulent than Troposphere. It has several stratified layers  in it, with temperature gradually increasing from lower level to higher level of the stratosphere. This layer consists of mainly ozone, oxygen and nitrogen. Ozone layer is found in this region between 20-40 Kms above the Earth's surface. In this region it can be seen in the ranges of 2 to 8 parts per million. If the entire ozone was to be compressed to the pressure of the air above sea level the thickness would come up to 3 millimeters.

The temperature goes as high as -2˚C at the top in contrast to -85˚C at the bottom of stratosphere. Let us see the reasons behind gradual increase in temperature from bottom of the layer to the top. Before that, it is fundamental to understand that the ozone in this part of the atmosphere absorbs the Sun's higher frequency radiation in the wavelength of 200-300 nm which can be potentially damaging to the life on Earth. Ozone is pale blue, highly poisonous gas with a strong odor and it is an irritating, corrosive, colorless gas with a smell something like burning electrical wiring. It is formed when an electric spark is passed through oxygen. The presence of ozone causes a detectable odor near electrical machinery. In fact, ozone is easily produced by any high-voltage electrical arc ( Tesla coils, arc welders, as well as photo-copiers, laser printers, CRT-tubes as used in TV and PC-sets, etc). Ozone is chemically much more active than ordinary oxygen and is a better oxidizing agent.

1A : The Ozone in the top of the stratosphere interacts directly with the incoming UV-B and UV-C to break down in to oxygen molecule and oxygen atom.   O₃ ↔ O + O₂ 

1B : The Oxygen in the top of the stratosphere interacts directly with the incoming UV-B and UV-C to break down in to two oxygen atoms.  O₂ + ℎν_uv → 2O

2.  The oxygen molecules and individual atoms further combine to form ozone.  O + O₂ ↔ O₃ 

All the above processes go on simultaneously occur simultaneously in the layers between 20-40 Kms range of stratosphere.

What happens with CFCs?

Usually, the CFC are inert. Due to their inertness they diffuse as it is to higher levels of atmosphere up to stratosphere. Here, the UV radiation of wavelength 180-220 nm causes them to decompose. And the chlorine atoms formed as a result of decomposition use up the ozone molecules as well as monoatomic oxygen to form chlorine compounds and oxygen. This hinders the formation occurrence of  O + O₂ ↔ O₃ therefore indirectly reducing the volume of ozone in the stratosphere.

CFCl₃ → CFCl2₂ + Cl
CF₂Cl₂ → CF₂Cl + Cl

Cl + O₃→ ClO + O₂
ClO + O  → Cl + O₂
O₃ + O → 2O₂

Unlike Troposphere, there are no clouds or dust particles or lightenings or rain in this layer. Clouds occur very rarely above the Antarctica region and these clouds are called 'Mother of pearls' or 'Nacreous clouds'. If you can recollect, we have discussed in earlier blogs that the Earth rotates on its own axis from west to east(Counter-Clockwise). The jets traveling in the stratosphere take advantage of this rotatory motion when they have to travel from West to East. That extra push due to Earth's rotation helps the Jets to save on fuel besides decreasing the travel time.

Further, this region of the atmosphere is studied by sending huge air balloons also called high-altitude balloons or weather balloons. These can be used to study atmospheric conditions up to a height of 38 kms(Highest height reached by a weather balloon- BU60-1 was 53kms). This high-altitude balloons is used in the core of the PROJECT LOON by Google.

Stratopause (50-55 kms): This forms the end of stratosphere and occurs just below the Mesosphere. It has thickness of about 5 kms. The temperature reaches up to -2˚C to -15˚C in this region. The pressure is 1/1000 of the pressure at the sea level.

Mesosphere

Mesosphere(50-100 kms): This is the layer of atmosphere between Stratopause and the Mesopause. The temperature again starts to gradually fall in this region and reaches up to -100˚C near the mesopause. This is supposedly the most unknown region of the atmosphere; it is also called Ignorosphere (as we are mostly ignorant about the layer). It is unknown to scientific analysis as this region is too high for the high-altitude air balloons to reach and too low for the satellites to orbit(due to the drag).

In spite of the reason above, observations shows that:
1. Mesosphere is the coldest of all the regions of the atmosphere, with temperatures touching -100˚C at the mesopause which is below the minimum temperature ever recorded at Antarctica. 
2. Many meteoroids falling in to the atmosphere are burnt up in this region in to dust particles or the like. This can be seen as a beautiful sight; Meteor Shower, when large groups of meteors enter the atmosphere at the same interval of time and get
burnt in the mesosphere region.
3. For reasons unknown, there are lightenings and Noctilucent clouds(which are usually frozen clouds) in this region which are different from the lightenings and the clouds of the troposphere. 

Night clouds or Noctilucent clouds

But why is mesosphere the coolest?

Well, the mesosphere is at 55 kms to 100 kms and is mostly empty i.e., it does't have significant amount of gas molecules. Reason#1: Due to the absence of gas molecules, the extent of heat absorbed by the molecules is negligible. Of the gas molecules present, CO2 dominates. Reason#2: This is how it goes: CO2 molecules move around in space -> They collide with other molecules of gases(CO2 or other) -> They get excited -> After excitation, they eventually reach their ground state(de-excitation) after a while -> During this de-excitation, they emit radiation(photons) -> This radiation in the form of photons, travel up in space, away from the mesosphere -> Since radiation is traveling 'away' from the mesosphere, it makes the mesosphere cool. Both Reason#1 and Reason#2 are responsible for the decreasing temperatures in mesosphere as we travel away from the earth's surface.

Mesopause(100-105 kms) : This layer, similar to a any other 'pause' layer like tropopause or stratopause, is an intermediate layer. It is the layer sandwiched between thermosphere and mesosphere. An interesting feature is that, the summer temperatures in mesopause are lower than the winter temperatures. This is called the Mesopause Anomaly. The reason although needs us to dig deeper in to the subject. One more important thing to be noted is that the same CO2 which heats up the Earth in the Troposphere(due to Green-House effect)  cools the mesosphere-mesopause due to what is called as Radiative Cooling effect. Scientists say that with increasing CO2 content on Earth, the troposphere gets hotter and at the same time, the mesosphere shall be getting colder. Although the magnitude of temperature raising(in Troposphere) and falling(in Mesosphere) might not be proportional. 

Thermosphere(105 kms - 1,90,000 kms) : This is the final layer of Earth's atmosphere. This extends from the end of Mesopause to outer space, where earth's gravitation will not be felt. Thermosphere is divided in to two sub-layers: Ionosphere and Exosphere. 

Ionosphere(90-1000 kms): This layer actually extends from 90 kms(mesosphere) to about 1000 kms. This layer gets extremely hot as we travel away from the surface of the Earth. The upper part of this layer is ionized by the Sun i.e., this layer is so hot that the molecules present in this layer are broken apart by sun's radiation in to ions and electrons. This is how it goes: Molecules are present in this layer -> Dangerous radiations of all frequencies reach this layer from the Sun -> The photons of this radiations are absorbed by the electrons in the molecules and get loose from the molecule -> As the electron leaves the molecule, the molecule becomes an ion -> This process happens in bulk masses all over the Ionosphere resulting in monoatomic particles(ions and electrons). Although ionosphere comprises of large number of ions and electrons, the charge is balanced as there are equal number of ions as that of ions. It is to be noted that Ionization(splitting of a molecule in to monoatomic particles) happens during the day time i.e., in presence of sun's radiation. At night time, the reverse process can happen in the absence of such radiation. However, in the upper layers of Ionosphere the ions and electrons are always present due to the high temperatures. The temperatures of this layer just keeps increasing as you go up.

Ionosphere is of significant use to humans as they help in transmission of radio waves; the ions present especially in the top most layers of Ionosphere reflect the high frequency(HF) radio waves transmitted from Earth, back to Earth and thus enable communication. This goes like this: HF waves are transmitted in to space -> They reach the ionosphere and the electrons of this layer strongly reflect the waves -> Due to the reflection, the waves are thus transmitted back to Earth. The waves are transmitted from Earth in such an angle that the waves are reflected to the desired location. Further, Ionosphere is the stage for one more important event : The Auroras - Click to understand Auroras and the reason for their formation and so on.

Exosphere(1000-1,90,000 kms): Exosphere has two parts. The lower part called Exobase extending up to several thousand kilometers and the upper part, the Exosphere extending as high as 1,90,000 kms(Roughly half the distance to the moon). This layer being a part of Thermosphere has temperature continuously raising up and in most cases cannot be specified. Exosphere is the transitional phase between atmosphere and the interplanetary space.

Around the Earth, Part I

Now, we are clear on where Earth stands in the Solar System after the last blog: Sun and the Other Small Things. Going forward, let us find out what is immediately around the Earth. We know that as per the conditions of a Planet, every planet should have enough gravity to attain round shape(hydrostatic equilibrium) and clear the space around its own orbit. So, this means we can take it for granted that Earth has considerably strong gravitational field.

Atmosphere is layer of gaseous mixture surrounding the Earth. This layer is retained by the pull of Earth's gravity. Atmospheric layer extend up to 100,000 kms above the surface of Earth. It is important to know that Earth's atmosphere doesn't abruptly end after 100,000 kms, but rather become lighter and lighter and slowly disappears as we go farther from the Earth's surface. Hence, the density/thickness of atmosphere will be highest at the surface of Earth and decreases gradually as we go farther and gradually nullifies after 100,000 kms above the surface. Atmosphere consists of several layers. It is fundamental to know on what basis these layers are divided and so on. As we travel away from the Earth's surface:

At first, the temperature starts decreasing and reaches point (A) and then,
It starts increasing until point (B) then again,
It starts decreasing until point (C) and then finally,
It starts increasing from there on.

We shall get in to the reason behind such temperature inversion patterns as we proceed. However, for now, it is to be understood that on the basis of this Temperature Inversion the atmosphere is divided in to FOUR parts.

A- 10 kms, B- 48 kms, C- 80 kms

1. Troposphere - From surface level to point A.
2. Stratosphere - From Point A to Point B.
3. Mesosphere - From Point B to Point C.
4. Thermosphere - From Point C to space.

Composition of Atmosphere: Atmosphere mostly comprises of what we generally call - air. Air has:

78.09% of Nitrogen,

20.95% of Oxygen,

0.93% Argon,

0.039% Carbon Dioxide and other gases in lesser compositions. Further, it is said to have up to 1% of water vapor over the sea level and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. 90% of the total atmosphere will be present within 20 kms from the surface of the Earth. This is due to obvious high gravity present near the Earth's surface.

Troposphere (0-12 kms): All the weather conditions that we see everyday occur in this region of the atmosphere. The height of the Troposphere varies from Equator to Poles. At Equator it is 17 kms and at poles it is 9 kms. The reason behind this height difference is very important to understand further concepts on Weather.

'At poles the temperature is low compared to Equator. This makes air more dense at the poles and light at the equator. Now, consider the air at poles and air at the Equator as two columns of air. Now, to achieve same atmospheric pressure, colder air at the poles occupies lesser volume as compared to hotter air at the Equator. So, the hotter air mass at the Equator tries to balance its temperature, volume and pressure, with the colder air at the poles so that they can achieve equilibrium. The result of such 'trials to achieve equilibrium' or 'transport of air' drives the whole concept of Weather!'

Red column- Equator
Blue column- Poles

Further, the temperature graph steadily decreases in Troposphere as we move away from the surface of the Earth.

- There will be 6.5˚ C fall for every 1 Km we travel away from the Earths' surface. This is called Normal Lapse Rate(NLR). Troposphere contains mainly dust particles and water vapor.

- At the top of Troposphere; near tropopause the temperature touches as low as -85˚C.

- 90% of the water vapor present in the air is within 6 kms and 99% is within 12 kms from the Earth's surface.

- Troposphere comprises of 75% of entire atmospheric mass.

- Almost all the visible clouds we see are a part of Troposphere. This is the most important layer of the atmosphere with respect to living beings due to the presence of weather in this region.

This cartoon shows some of the gases in Earth's troposphere. There is more nitrogen (N₂) than anything else. There is also a lot of oxygen (O₂). The cartoon also shows carbon dioxide (CO₂), water vapor (H₂O), methane (CH₄), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and carbon monoxide (CO). 
Image courtesy UCAR, 

Tropopause(12-14 kms above the surface) : Tropopause is a layer of 1.5-2 kms in thickness and is formed above the Troposphere(extends up to 12 kms). The temperature no more falls in tropopause. This is considered as an unstable layer and above the Tropopause the temperature begins to raise in Stratosphere. This inversion in temperature prevents further convection of air. Thus, confining most of the world's weather to Troposphere.

Read further- Around the Earth- Part II

Sun and other small things

Geography is a topic as vast as the Universe can get. Geography is study of Earth and other important things associated with the same. Before we study about our Earth in depth, let's have a peek in to where our abode stands in the endless Universe. Let's focus on the Solar System, it's position and composition and its limits and many more significant things.

Solar system is a simple system consisting of The Sun and other objects rotating the Sun. These objects are popularly classified as Planets, Moons, Asteroids, Comets and Dust Particles. Solar System is systematically located 26,000 light years away from the centre of Milky Way Galaxy. It is positioned in the Orion arm of the MilkyWay Galaxy. It is important to know that as the planets revolve around the Sun, Solar System revolves around the centre of the Galaxy.

Sun:

Sun is the centre of the solar system and the sole light-emitter. No other object in the solar system radiates. But they do absorb and adequately make use of the sun's radiation. Sun's plasma radiates only up to several thousand lightyears away from its surface. The sphere i.e., the space which can feel the propagation of sun's radiation/plasma is called Heliosphere. All the Planets, Moons, Asteroids, Comets and the Dust Particles are inside this giant sphere of sun's plasma. The intensity of radiation decreases as we travel farther from the surface of the Sun(That's why Mercury is the hottest planet and Neptune is the Coldest). Everything inside this sphere is called the solar system. Everything outside is called the Interstellar Space. The layer between the heliosphere and the Interstellar space is called Heliopause. Heliopause is the portion where the sun's plasma wind has equal speed as that of the winds of the Interstellar space, nullifying each other and ending the Heliosphere.

Planets:

After the Sun, next heavy objects in the Solar System are the Planets. International Astronomical Union in 2006 defined a planet as an object:

1. Being in the orbit around the Sun.
2. Having high gravitational forces and massive enough to overcome the rigid body forces and thus attaining Hydrostatic Equilibrium(spherical in shape).
3. Being able to 'clear the space' around its orbit.
4. Being as effective as other planets of the Solar System.

The points: 2 and 3 form the base of the definition as most of the planet-like objects fail to follow either of the conditions. Pluto has lost the status of the planet and is categorized as Dwarf-Planet of the Kuiper's belt for failing on the Condition 3.

' Clearing the Space around the Orbit means, in the last stages of planet formation, the effective gravitational pull should be clearing the space around the orbit by pulling the objects in to its field. And the planet shall revolve around the Sun only along with its moons. If this criterion is missed, such an object will be called Dwarf-Planet.' 

Spatial Positioning: 

To name the planets in order of their distance from the Sun:

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. As mentioned earlier, the temperature of the planets decreases with increasing distance from the Surface of the Sun. Ergo, Mercury is hottest and Neptune is icy. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars are called the inner-terrestrial or the terrestrial planets as they are comparatively nearer to the Sun. After mars there is a continuous belt of space filled with asteroids. This belt is called The Asteroid Belt. 

Asteroids /  noun. They are the objects of space. They have comparatively (to planets) less mass, density. They do revolve around the Sun like planets do, but they lack Hydrostatic Equilibrium(Spherical Shape) most importantly the ability to clear the space around their orbit. However, at times, asteroids are pulled by larger planets like Neptune(due to their high gravitational pull) and are forced to revolve around the planets ultimately becoming their moons. Triton, one of the moons of Neptune is an example. It has been identified as a pulled object based on Triton's retrogade (they orbit in opposite direction of their planets rotation) movement around Neptune.  

'Kuiper's Belt is similar to the asteroid belt but it is formed beyond the Neptunian orbit. Some loose asteroids or other objects which get pulled in to solar system from the belt travel fast and attain high speeds to form comets. Same is the case with some objects falling in to the Solar system from the Oort cloud near the Proxima Centauri(Closest star to the Sun).'  

The Planets coming after the Asteroid Belt are called the Outer-Terrestrial planets or the Giant planets(For their size). Giant Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune are so large in size and mass that their combined mass constitutes 99% of the mass of the Solar System(excluding Sun). Further, Jupiter and Saturn are called the Gas Giants as they have high compositions of gases like hydrogen and the like. And Uranus and Neptune are called the Ice Giants as their surfaces are more dense and made of ice due to composition of nitrogen and ammonia besides hydrogen and the like. 

Size and Mass and Density:

Sun is by default heaviest and the largest of all bodies in the Solar System.

By size Jupiter is the largest planet of the Solar System. The order will be: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.

By mass, as well, Jupiter is the heaviest planet of the Solar System. The order will be: Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury. Neptune has more mass even when it is smaller in size than Uranus due to its high density.

By density Earth is the densest planet of the Solar System. The order will be: Earth, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Neptune, Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn.

Moons or Natural Satellites:

Satellites are the objects that revolve around other Bodies or Planets. Like planets follow their orbit around the sun, satellites follow their orbit around the planet. Only primary satellite and non-artificial ones are called Natural Satellites. Basically satellites include very small(<10km diameter) objects which satisfy the definition of Asteroid as well. Natural Satellites are the primary ones and ONLY the primary ones. The ones that are predominantly large by mass.

Jupiter has 67 satellites including four natural satellites- Lo, Ganymede, Europa, Callisto.

Saturn has 63 satellites including seven natural satellites- Titan, Lapetus, Dlone, Tethys, Enceladus, Mimas and Rhea.

Uranus has 27 satellites including six natural satellites- Puck, Ariel, Titania, Oberon, Umbreil and Miranda (All names from the Works of Shakespeare).

Neptune has 13 satellites including one natural satellite Triton.

Mars has two satellites, Phobos (Meaning: Fear) and Deimos (Meaning: Dread).

Earth has only one satellite i.e., the Moon.

Mercury and Venus do not have any satellites.

Ecliptic Plane:

All the Planet in the solar system revolve around the sun in their respective orbits. The plane of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun is called as the Ecliptic Plane. Almost all the planets have their orbit on the Ecliptic plane. Earth rotation is 23.5˚ inclined to the perpendicular of the ecliptic. The consequences of such inclination is the occurrence of seasons. We shall see more about the consequences of such inclinations in coming articles.

To know more about the Earth's atmosphere read, Around the Earth - Part I.

Election of Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the State Legislative Assembly

The following procedure of election of Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the State Legislative Assembly has been taken from the 'Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in The Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly':

(1) The election of the Speaker shall be held on such date as the Governor may fix and the Secretary shall send to every member notice of the date.

(2) At any time between 10-30 a.m. and 5-00 p.m. on the day preceding the date so fixed, any member may file a nomination paper nominating another member for election. The nomination paper shall contain the name of the member nominated; shall be signed by the proposer and it shall contain a declaration by the nominee that he is willing to serve as Speaker, if elected. The nomination paper with the declaration shall be delivered to the Secretary in person either by the proposer or the candidate nominated provided that a Member shall not propose his own name or propose more than one name.

(3) Where there are more than one nomination paper in favour of the same candidate one such declaration will be sufficient.

(4) The election shall take place at a meeting of the Assembly.

(5) On the date fixed for election, the person presiding at the meeting shall read out to the Assembly the names of members who have been duly nominated together with those of their proposers, and if only one member has been so nominated, shall declare that member elected. If more than one member has been so nominated, the Assembly shall proceed to elect the Speaker by ballot. Any member so nominated may withdraw his candidature at any time before the ballot commences.

(6) A member shall not be deemed to have been duly nominated if he or his proposer has not before the reading out of the names by the person presiding made and subscribed the oath or affirmation as a member of the Assembly.

(7) Where more than two candidates have been nominated and at the first ballot no candidate obtains more votes than the aggregate votes obtained by the other candidates, the candidate who has obtained the smallest number of votes shall be eliminated from the election and a balloting shall proceed, the candidate obtaining the smallest number of votes at each ballot being eliminated from the election until one candidate obtained more votes than the remaining candidates, or than the aggregate votes of the remaining candidates as the case may be.

(8) Where at any ballot any two candidates obtain an equal number of votes and one of them has to be eliminated from the election, the question shall be decided by drawing of lots.

(9) Where at any ballot any three or more candidates obtain an equal number of votes and one of them has to be eliminated from the election, the determination as among the candidates whose votes are equal, of the candidate who is to be eliminated shall be by drawing of lots.

Election of Deputy Speaker:

(0) The election of Deputy Speaker shall be held on such date as the Governor, when there is no Speaker, or the Speaker, when there is a Speaker, may fix and the Secretary shall send to every member notice of this date. 

(1) At the commencement of every session the Speaker shall nominate from amongst the members a panel of not more than six Chairmen, any one of whom may preside over the Assembly in the absence of the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker, when so requested by the Speaker or in his absence by the Deputy Speaker, provided that when both the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are absent and no request as above has been made, any Member in the panel as shown in list in the order in which they have been mentioned by the speaker shall preside over the Assembly.

(2) The members of the panel of Chairmen nominated under sub-rule (1) shall hold, Office until a new Panel of Chairmen has been nominated.

(3) If the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are both absent and if no member of the Panel of Chairmen is present, the Assembly may, if there is a quorum, by motion elect one of its members present to preside and act as a Chairman and the Secretary shall conduct such election.

(4). The Deputy Speaker or other member competent to preside over a sitting of the Assembly under the Constitution, or these rules, shall when so presiding, have the same powers as the Speaker when so presiding and all references to the Speaker in these rules shall, in these circumstances, be deemed to be references to any such person so presiding.

Levels of Government-Part B

We have covered the lower levels of the hierarchy in the Levels of Government-Part A

Now, let's dig deeper in to how it works in the district, state and national level.



Basically, districts are collection of Blocks or ULBs(Urban Local Bodies). Collection of districts is a State. Number of districts in a state differ depending on the size and population of the state.

Many states are divided on language basis(tamilnadu-tamil, karnataka-kannada, kerala-malayalam etc.,) however, it was NOT how Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru envisioned the division of states to happen. Post-independence, the division was based on the already existing kingdoms. For e.g., Madras state of 1947 A. D consisted most parts of present Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Due to the local demand for division of state on language basis, Mr. Nehru was left with no choice but to do so. Punjab was bifurcated in to Punjab and Haryana on 1st, November 1966 to separate Haryanvi speaking people of now Haryana. Andhra Pradesh was reorganized as a separate state on November 1st, 1956 following several protests for bifurcation. Recently, Andhra Pradesh was further bifurcated in to Telangana and Andhra Pradesh (Rest of the state) on 2nd June, 2014 following prolonged protests against the existing Congress govt. India presently has 29 states.

Union Territories are those pieces of land which are:

1. Too small to be given status of an independent state.
2. Too unique to be merged with existing states.
3. Geographically separated, which demands direct protection and support(both economic and otherwise).

For more info on Union Territories, please read Union Territories.

I. District Level: Zilla Parishad or District Council or District Panchayat or Zilla panchayat:

• Head: President and Vice-President elected by the members of the Zilla parishad. Administrative head will be an IAS officer designated as the CEO. CEO supervises the divisions of the district and executes the development schemes.
• Members:  Minimum of 50 to maximum of 75 members. Includes Chairpersons of the Mandals(Blocks) under that District + Councillors of the Urban Local Bodies of the District + Members of the Zilla Parishad elected by the public of that District + Members of the State Legislature having jurisdiction in that District + Members of the Legislative Parliament having jurisdiction in that District.
• Sources of Income:
• Taxes on water, pilgrimage, markets, etc.
• Fixed grant from the State Government in proportion with the land revenue and money for works and schemes assigned to the Parishad.
• The Zila Parishad can collect some money from the panchayats with the approval of the govrnment.
• It gets a share from the income from local taxes.
• Functions: 
• Provide essential services and facilities to the rural population and the planning and execution of the development programmes for the district.
• Supply improved seeds to farmers. Inform them of new techniques of training. Undertake construction of small-scale irrigation projects and percolation tanks. Maintain pastures and grazing lands.
• Set up and run schools in villages. Execute programmes for adult literacy. Run libraries.
• Start Primary Health Centres and hospitals in villages. Start vaccination drives against epidemics and family welfare campaigns.
• Construct bridges and roads.
• Execute plans for the development of the scheduled castes and tribes. Run ashramshalas for adivasi children. Set up free hostels for scheduled caste students.
• Encourage entrepreneurs to start small-scale industries like cottage industries, handicraft, agriculture produce processing mills, dairy farms, etc. Implement rural employment schemes.
• They construct roads,schools,& public properties.And they take care of the public properties.
• They even supply work for the poor people.(tribes,scheduled caste,lower caste).

II. State Level- Two Houses:

1. Legislative Assembly or Vidhan Sabha or State Legislative Assembly
2. State Legislative Council or Vidhan Parishad

Only Seven out of 29 states as of now has two houses. In those seven states, Legislative Council shall act as the Upper House and the Legislative Assembly as the Lower House. This is called Bicameral Arrangement of State legislature. In Bicameral Legislatures, usually any bill is first introduced in the Lower House and if it gets a 2/3 majority, it shall be proceeded to the Upper House. If the bill gets minimum of 2/3 majority in Upper House as well, it shall then be taken to the Governor for final approval. After Governor's consent, the bill shall become an 'Act'. However a bill can be introduced in the Upper House as well except for Money Bills in which case only Lower House can introduce.

In other 22 states, there shall be only one house: Legislative Assembly. This is Unicameral Arrangement of the State Legislature. In Unicameral Legislatures, usually any bill is first introduced in the House and if it gets a 2/3 majority, it shall be proceeded to the Governor for final approval. After Governor's consent, the bill shall become an 'Act'.

First lets get in to the details of S.L.A and S.L.C. Then lets know why only few of the states have S.L.C, functions of S.L.C and its need in the Legislation process.

1. State Legislative Assembly or Vidhan Sabha: 

• Speaker: Two members of the House shall be elected as the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House. Since it is a election among the members of the house, members of the majority party will hold the positions of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
• Members: Must contain minimum of 40 members and a maximum of 500 members. All the Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs) who are directly elected by the public for their respective constituencies are the members.
• Leader of the House: Chief Minister of the State.
• Leader of the Opposition: Usually the head of the political party with second highest majority. In other cases, head choses a Leader of Opposition from among his party MLAs.
• Special Powers: 
• A money bill can only be introduced in Vidhan Sabha. In bicameral jurisdictions, after it is passed in the Vidhan Sabha, it is sent to the Vidhan Parishad, where it can be kept for a maximum time of 14 days. Unless a by the Finance Minister of the state in the name of the Governor of that state.
• In matters related to ordinary bills, the will of Legislative Assembly prevails and there is no provision of joint sitting(Like at the Centre). In such cases, Legislative council can delay the legislation by maximum 4 months (3 months in first visit and 1 month in the second visit of the bill). This shows that S.L.C doesn't hold as much much as Rajya Sabha holds at the centre. However, it helps in keeping a check on the state assembly's decision making freedom from affecting the greater goal of the Republic.
• A motion of no confidence against the government in the state can only be introduced in the Vidhan Sabha. If it is passed by a majority vote, then the Chief Minister and his Council of Ministers must collectively resign. 
• Term: 5 years.

2. State Legislative Council or Vidhan Parishad: 

• Speaker: Two members from the members of the house shall be elected as the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House. 
• Members: 
• Must contain minimum of 40 members(Except for Jammu & Kashmir where it is 36, as an Act of Parliament) and a maximum of one-third of S.L.A members. Members are elected as:
• One-third are elected by members of local bodies such as corporations, municipalities, and Zila Parishads.
• One-third are elected by members of Legislative Assembly from among the persons who are not members of the Assembly.
• One-twelfth are elected by persons who are graduates of three years' standing residing in that state.
• One-twelfth are elected by persons engaged for at least three years in teaching in educational institutions within the state not lower than secondary schools, including colleges and universities.
• One-sixth are nominated by the governor from persons having knowledge or practical experience in fields such as literature, science, arts, the co-operative movement and social service.
• Leader of the House: Chief Minister of the State or head of the party choses a Leader of House from among his party MLCs.
• Leader of the Opposition: Usually the head of the political party with second highest majority or head choses a Leader of Opposition from among his party MLCs.
• Special Powers: 
• Powers of MLC is same as MLA except in case of money bills. MLC play consultant's role.
• In matters related to ordinary bills, the will of Legislative Assembly prevails and there is no provision of joint sitting(Like at the Centre). In such cases, Legislative council can delay the legislation by maximum 4 months (3 months in first visit and 1 month in the second visit of the bill). This shows that S.L.C doesn't hold as much much as Rajya Sabha holds at the centre. However, it helps in keeping a check on the state assembly's decision making freedom from affecting the greater goal of the Republic.
• Term: 6 years. With terms staggered such that one-third members of the house shall retire/expire for every two years.
• Additional details: The existence of a Legislative Council has proven politically controversial. A number of states that have had their Council abolished have subsequently requested its re-establishment; conversely, proposals for the re-establishment of the Council for few states have also met with opposition. Proposals for abolition or re-establishment of a state's Legislative Council require a bill to be passed in S.L.A, if it gets a 2/3 majority the same bill shall be passed in the Parliament of India. If the bill gets 2/3 majority and is duly signed by the President of India, it shall be enacted and Legislative Council can be then formed in the state.

III. Union Level: Parliament Of The Republic Of India.

• Parliament: The Constitution of India provides us with a Bicameral Parliament consisting of a President and two houses: Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and House of the People (Lok Sabha).

1. President of India
2. Lok Sabha- Lower House
3. Rajya Sabha- Upper House

Rajya Sabha(RS) or the Council Of States:

• Chairperson: Vice-President is the Ex-Officio chairperson and the Deputy Chairperson is elected from the members of the House.
• Members: RS has maximum of 250 members consisting of 238 members from the States and Union Territories, and 12 members elected specially by the President Of India from among the people who have special knowledge or practical experience in fields of literature, science, arts or social service. Number of members to each state are allocated based on the population of the states.
• Election of Members: Members of RS(Members of the State) are elected by the members of the legislative assembly of that state where he/she submitted the nomination.
• Leader of the House: Besides the Chairperson, the leader of the House and Leader of the Opposition are present in RS. Leader of the house is a cabinet minister- Prime Minister or any other nominated minister.
• Leader of the Opposition: Besides the Leader of the House, Leader of the Opposition has been recognized by the Government in the ' Salaries and Allowances for the Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act' in 1977. The Leader of opposition will be head of the next highest majority party or his nominated member.
• Term: 6 years. With terms staggered such that one-third members of the house shall retire/expire for every two years.
• Secretariat: Meaning = a permanent administrative office or department, especially a governmental one. 
•   The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows:

• 'Secretariat of Parliament -Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.'

• The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following :
• Providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
• Preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications;
• Servicing the various Parliamentary Committees;
• Recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and
• Preparing and publishing a record of the day-to-day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees.
• In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary-General, who holds the rank equivalent[8] to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary-General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the SType of body: Permanent and cannot be dissolved in mid-term.

• Additional:

• Money bills can only be introduced in Lok Sabha and not in RS.
• Motion of no-confidence against the Government can be passed/introduced only in Lok Sabha and not in RS.
• The number of members in Rajya Sabha is 250 and that of Lok Sabha is 545. So if a bill passed by the Lok Sabha is rejected by Rajya Sabha, then in the following Joint sitting the bill is more likely to pass due to the majority of Lok Sabha. Till now, only three such Joint sittings took place, latest one being conducted on 2002 on 'Prevention of Terrorism Act'.

Lok Sabha(LS) or the House of the People:

• Speaker: Speaker is the elected by the members of the House. So is the case with the Deputy speaker. The procedure is same as that goes with the state assemblies. To know the procedure of election of speaker/deputy speaker of State Legislative Assembly click here. 
• Members: LS has maximum of 552 members consisting of 530 members from the States and  20 members from the Union Territories, and 2 members specially nominated by the President of India from the Anglo-Indian Community, only in case he feels they are not adequately represented. 
• Election of Members: The (530+20) members are elected from their respective constituencies of the state or Union Territory by the public of that constituency by Universal Adult Franchise. Other 2 members are nominated by the President.
• Leader of the House: The Leader of the house is a cabinet minister- Prime Minister or any other nominated minister.
• Leader of the Opposition: Besides the Leader of the House, Leader of the Opposition has been recognized by the Government in the ' Salaries and Allowances for the Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act' in 1977. The Leader of opposition will be head of the next highest majority party or his nominated member.
• Term: 5 years. In case of emergency this term could be extended. In case the motion of no-confidence is passed the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers(Cabinet) shall resign.
• Special Powers:
• Motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha. If passed by a majority vote, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers resigns collectively. The Rajya Sabha has no power over such a motion, and hence no real power over the executive. However, the Prime Minister may threaten the dissolution by the Lok Sabha and recommend this to the President, forcing an untimely general election. The President normally accepts this recommendation unless otherwise convinced that the Lok Sabha might recommend a new Prime Minister by a majority vote. Thus, both the executive and the legislature in India have checks and balances over each other.
• Money bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha, and upon being passed, are sent to the Rajya Sabha, where it can be deliberated on for up to 14 days. If not rejected by the Rajya Sabha, or 14 days lapse from the introduction of the bill in the Rajya Sabha without any action by the House, or recommendations made by the Rajya Sabha are not accepted by the Lok Sabha, the bill is considered passed. The budget is presented in the Lok Sabha by the Finance Minister in the name of the President of India.
• In matters pertaining to non-financial (ordinary) bills, after the bill has been passed by the House where it was originally tabled (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha), it is sent to the other house, where it may be kept for a maximum period of 6 months. If the other House rejects the bill or a period of 6 months elapses without any action by that House, or the House that originally tabled the bill does not accept the recommendations made by the members of the other house, it results in a deadlock. This is resolved by a joint session of both Houses, presided over by the speaker of the Lok Sabha and decided by a simple majority. The will of the Lok Sabha normally prevails in these matters, as its strength is more than double that of the Rajya Sabha.
• Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing any Bill for Constitutional Amendment (by a majority of the total membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting).
• Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a motion for the impeachment of the President (by two-thirds of the membership of the House).
• Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a motion for the impeachment of the judges of the Supreme Court and the state High Courts (by a majority of the membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting).
• Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a resolution declaring war or national emergency (by two-thirds majority) or constitutional emergency (by simple majority) in a state.
• If the Lok Sabha is dissolved before or after the declaration of a National Emergency, the Rajya Sabha becomes the sole Parliament. It cannot be dissolved. This is a limitation on the Lok Sabha. But there is a possibility that president can exceed the term to not more than 1 year under the proclamation of emergency and the same would be lowered down to six-month if the said proclamation ceases to operate.

President of India:

The President of India is the head of state of the Republic of India. The President is the formal head of the executive, legislature and judiciary of India and is the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President is indirectly elected by the people through elected members of the Parliament of India (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) as well as of the Legislative Assemblies in States of India (Vidhan Sabha) and the each Union Territories, i.e. Delhi, Puducherry etc.; and serves for a term of five years.Historically, ruling party (majority in the Lok Sabha) nominees (for example, United Progressive Alliance nominee Pranab Mukherjee) have usually been elected unanimously. Incumbent presidents are permitted to stand for re-election. A formula is used to allocate votes so there is a balance between the population of each state and the number of votes assembly members from a state can cast, and to give an equal balance between State Assembly members and the members of the Parliament of India. If no candidate receives a majority of votes, then there is a system by which losing candidates are eliminated from the contest and their votes are transferred to other candidates, until one gains a majority. The oath of the President is administered by the Chief Justice of India, and in his absence, by the most senior judge of the Supreme Court.

Indian Union Territories

Union Territories are those pieces of land which are:

1. Too small to be given status of an independent state.
2. Too unique to be merged with the existing states.
3. Geographically separated, which demands direct protection and support(both economic and otherwise) from the centre.

There are seven Union Territories (UTs) in India, after Goa being given the Status of an Independent state in 1987. Of the seven only Delhi and Pondi (Puducherry) have their own Legislative assemblies. A UT can be given the status of an independent state of the Republic of India if the UT seems to show favorable signs that it can manage and perform it's own internal legislative and executive functions there after.

Seven Union Territories:

1. Delhi: New Delhi was given UT status as it is the capital of National Capital Territory(NCT) and needs centre's full attention. However, Delhi(NCT) was given semi-state status in 1991 by including near-by towns and cities. Other cities/towns include: Gurgoan, Faridabad, New faridabad, Noida, Greater Noida, Ghaziabad, Karnal, Rohtak, Rewari, Sonepet, Meerut, Panipat, Bhiwani, Bhagpet, Alwar and Bharatpur. Now, NCT has a High Court, Legislative Assembly, it's own Chief Minister, Council Of Ministers. Additionally, a Lieutenant Governor (appointed by the President Of India) acts as the Administrator for the New Delhi UT.  The capital of NCT and India- New Delhi is jointly administered by the Federal Govt. of India and the local government.
Capital City: New Delhi.

2. Pondi (puducherry): It is a former French Colony. It has been given the Union Territory status to safeguard the rights of indigenous cultures and averting political turmoil. As with NCT, Puducherry also has its own Legislative Assembly and Council Of Ministers, a Chief Minister and a Lieutenant Governor representing the Centre and residing at the Raj Nivas (The official residence of the then French Governors). Puducherry being a French colony has four enclaves(of former French Colonies) rather than a single large chunk of land. Puducherry includes- Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam on the coasts of Bay of Bengal and Mahe on the coast of Arabian Sea.
Capital City: Pondicherry.



3. Daman and Diu (D. D)&
4. Dadra and Nagar Haveli(D. N. H)  : These are former Portuguese colonies. Both the UTs are taken over from the Portuguese through military conquest. Dadra is surrounded by Gujarat on all sides, Nagar Haveli is wedged between Gujarat and Maharashtra on all sides. Whereas, Daman and Diu lie on the coasts of Arabian Sea in Gujarat. D.N.H was taken over by military conquest in 1954 and D.D was taken over in 1961. However not until 31st, December 1974 did Portugal sign the treaty with Indian Republic recognizing full sovereignity of India over D.D, D.N.H and Goa as well. Goa was given status of an Independent state later in 1987. Both the UTs have Government Administrators, usually IAS officers appointed by the President of India.
Capital City of D.D: Daman.
Capital City of D.N.H: Silvasaa.



5. Andaman and Nicobar Islands(A.N.I) &
6. Lakshadweep islands(L.I): A.N.I and L.I are on an average 1200 and 300 KMS away from the Indian Sub-Continent respectively. Both the Island groups are given UT status on 1st November, 1956. Both the UTs have Government Administrators, usually IAS officers appointed by the President of India.

Post-Independence, A.N.I was then planned to be used for settlement of Anglo-Indians and Anglo-Burmans by the British. However the plan did not materialize and A.N.I became a part of India in 1950. Andaman has 572 islands and Nicobar has 24 islands in all. Indira point of the Great Nicobar is the southern most point of the Indian Sub-Continent. Andaman and Nicobar are separated by the 10 degree channel.

On the other hand, L.I was ruled by many rulers since 1500 B.C. Islam entered L.I in 7 A.D and later on many rulers including Portuguese, Cholas, Tippu Sultan(till 1799) and British ruled the Lakshadweep islands. It has 36 islands in all.

Both the UTs hold great military importance. A.N.I having the ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR COMMAND- The Only Tri-Service Geographical Command of the Indian Armed Forces. L.I having INS DWEEPRAKSHAK- Indian Naval Base to safeguard India's vital shipping lanes with the Middle East.
Capital City of A.N.I: Port Blair.
Capital City of L.I: kavaratti.

7. Chandigarh: It was the capital city of East Punjab after partition of India-Pakistan. It is now the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana(East Punjab was reorganized as Punjab and Haryana on 1st November 1966) as it is located on the Punjab-Haryana border. To ease the jurisdiction it has been made UT. Since it is a UT, it has an Administrator appointed by the President of India. However, since 1985, the Governor of Punjab has been acting as the Administrator of the UT of Chandigarh. Chandigarh is also known as the The City Beautiful. It is the first-planned city of India and is internationally known for its Architecture. The City tops the Per capita Income among the States and UTs. It has the highest Human Development Index. It is also called the cleanest city and first smoke free city of India. Master plan of the city was laid by Le Corbusier. Most Famous place: Rock Garden built by Nek Chand.

Levels of Government-Part A

Democracy. noun. : Literally it means, People's rule (Demos- people, Cratia- rule). Simply put, it is a system of government where people hold the ultimate power in making or breaking the government.

India, as a sovereign republic, is a collection of many States. States are collection of Districts. Districts are collection of Municipalities/Corporations and local bodies. Like any other democracy, this country too has people at its core.

 

In this Country, the democracy is performed in multiple levels. Lets start from the bottom level and go up.

Villages: Panchayat or Gram panchayat

• Objective: Self-governance at local level. Usually they handle disputes between individuals.

• Head: Sarpanch elected by the members of the wards.
• Members: 7-17 members of different wards of the village. No. of members vary based on the population of the people eligible to vote.
• Criteria: Minimum of 300 people who hold eligibility to vote. It has 7 ward members for a population of 600 people and maximum 17 ward members for a population up to 9000 people.
• Responsibilities of the Sarpanch:
• Maintaining street lights, construction and repair work of roads in villages and also the village markets, fairs, collection of tax, festivals and celebrations
• Keeping a record of births, deaths and marriages in the village
• Looking after public health and by providing facilities for sanitation and drinking water
• Providing free education
• To organize the meetings of gram sabha and gram panchayat
• Providing health services and facilities
• Implementing development schemes related to agriculture and animal husbandry
• Planting trees in and around the village and to protect the environment
• Maintaining public parks and playgrounds, etc.
• Implementing various government schemes.

Blocks: Block Parishad or Taluk panchayat or Mandal Praja Parishad or Panchayat Samiti

• Objective: Self-governance at local level.Villages are grouped under blocks.
• Head: Chairman and Deputy Chairman elected by members of the body.
• Members: 
• Mandal Parishad Territorial Constituency(MPTC) members.
• Mandal Development Officer (Responsible for development of backward class population).
• Member of Legislative Assembly(Lok sabha-parliament) having Jurisdiction over that mandal.
• Member of Legislative Assembly of the state(Vidhan sabha) having Jurisdiction over that mandal.
• Member of Legislative council of state(Vidhan Parishad) having Jurisdiction over that mandal.
• Members of zilla parishad from the block.
• Associated members like farmers, members of cooperative societies, Agricultural marketing services, etc.,
• Departments:
• Administration
• Finance
• Public works (especially water and roads)
• Agriculture
• Health
• Education
• Social welfare
• Information Technology
• Women & Child Development
• Functions: Panchayat Samiti collects all the prospective plans prepared Gram panchayat level and processes them for funding and implementation by evaluating them from the angles of financial constraints, social welfare and area development.It also identifies and prioritize the issues which needs to be addressed at block level.
• Criteria: Each block contains 200-600 villages. In some states, tehsils contain set of blocks although in most states tehsils and blocks are one and the same.

Urban Local Bodies:

1. City Council or Nagar panchayat
2. Municipality or Nagar palika
3. Municipal Corporation or Mahanagar palace

I. Municipal Corporation or Mahanagar palika :

• Characteristics:
• It is the type of governance  at ‘Urban’ local government to develop the metropolitan cities.
• Has population more than 1 million.
• Highest self-governance and fiscal autonomy is found at this level.
• They have larger population and diversified economic base and are in direct contact with the state government.
• Head: Mayor elected by the members. Further, Municipal Commissioner acts as the Official-in-charge of this organization.
• Members:
• Councillors  elected(by public) from different wards of that Corporation(number of councillors depends on the area and population of the corporation with a minimum no. of 0.3 million for 1 councillor).
• Members elected(by public) from different wards of that Corporation.
• Sources Of Income: Its sources of income are taxes on water, houses, markets, entertainment and vehicles paid by residents of the town and grants from the state government.
• Functions:
• Roads
• Hospitals
• Over bridge
• Street lighting
• Drainage
• Solid waste
• Fire brigades
• Market places and
• Records of births and deaths
• Education and primary health care

II. Municipality or Nagar palika:

• Characteristics:
• It is the type of governance  at ‘Urban’ local government administered in cities/towns having population more than 0.1 Million(20,000 in some cases after Amendment 74 of Indian Constitution).
• Good level of self-governance is found at this level.
• Usually smaller district cities or large town have this system.
• They are in direct contact with the state government.
• Head: President. Elected by the members of the Nagar Palika.
• Members:
• Members elected(by public) from different wards of that Municipality(number of wards depends on the area and population of the Municipality).
• Engineer,(accountant & auditor).
• Sanitary inspector, Health officer and Education Officer who come from the state public service are appointed by the state government to control the administrative affairs of the Nagar Palika.
• Functions: Its sources of income are taxes on water, houses, markets, entertainment and vehicles paid by residents of the town and grants from the state government.

III. City Council or Nagar Panchayat or Notified Area Council(NAC):

• Characteristics:
• It is the type of governance  at Urban political unit administered in cities/towns having population between 11,000-25,000.
• Usually smaller district cities or large town have this system. These are comparable with municipalities.
• Head: Chairman. Elected by the members of the city council. Executive Officer acts as the Official-in-charge.
• Members:
• Members elected(by public) from different wards of that NAC(number of wards depends on the area and population of the NAC).
• Functions:
• Provide essential services and facilities to the urban area.
• Sanitation programme in township.
• Street lighting and providing roads in every wards and main roads of town.
• Set up and run schools in urban area. Execute programme for adult literacy and run city libraries.
• Water supplying to every wards of urban area.
• Drainage system to clear the solid and liquid wastes from town.
• Build culvert for underground drainage system.
• Records of births and deaths.

Read further Levels of Government-Part B