James Mill: Historian, economist, political theorist, and philosopher who worked for the East India Company in London. He has not once visited India but has written an extensive work on Indian History called: 'History of British India'.He has made a famous periodization of Indian History in to:
1. Ancient Indian History - The period of Hinduism
2. Medieval Indian History - The advent and period of Mohammad rule/Islam.
3. Modern Indian History - Period of British India.
But he didn't refer British rule as Christian rule. Thus attempting to completely denunciate and reject Indian culture and civilization claiming it to be based on 'religion' till the advent of British.
So far we have travelled 3947 years in History from 3300 BC and reached 647 AD. Let's see further ahead. Arjuna, the Minister of the Kingdom assassinated King Harsha. Arjuna was part of the Hindu religious group plotting against Harsha. Arjuna then usurped the Kingdom and attacked the Chinese ambassador who reached India(not knowing about his death) after the death of Harsha. This ambassador being a buddhist himself flew to the Nepal-tibet region and pleaded the buddhist kings to defend him. The Nepal-Tibet kings sent their armies and defeated Arjuna in the battle and took Arjuna as Prisoner of War and sent him along with the Chinese ambassador to the Chinese Emperor.
Later, one of the Hindu minister in the Kingdom of Harsha kills Harsha's two sons, thus leaving no heir to the throne. What happened after this period is not accurately known. India is said to have disintegrated into smaller kingdoms mostly local ones (Just like how Sathavahanas who were vassals under King Ashoka became kings after Ashoka's death). This kind of local rule continued for a while. We have sources of very few important events happening between 648 AD and 1191 AD until the invasion of Mohammad of Ghor in the northwest part of India to establish his rule in Delhi. Main ones being as follows:
- 712 AD: Mohammad Qasim, at the age of 17, enters Indian sub-continent at Sindh(now Pakistan). Qasim will stand in history as the first muslim king to enter India. Qasim's conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled further Islamic expansion into India. This is marked as the introduction of Islam to India. For this same reason, Sindh is referred to as 'Gateway of Islam to India'.
- 985 AD: Cholas rose to throne from being a small territory under pallava kings. Gradually taking power over the Pallava and Pandyan kingdoms. First powerful King being Raja Raja I who built the Thanjavur temple and next being his son Rajendra Chola I who has extended his rule far north as far as plains of Ganges and even took over the Bihar region. Rajendra Chola I has been credited with winning over the south-east asian archipelagos like Philippines, Indonesia in addition to Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar. We shall see more about the South-Indian Kingdoms in a specially dedicated blogpost on South-Indian Kingdoms of History.
- r. 997-1030 AD: Muhammad of Ghazni belonged to Ghaznivan Kingdom which covered most of Afghanistan. He was the first king to be called 'Sultan' or 'Sultan Muhammad'. He invaded India about 17 times. Plundering wealth from different kingdoms each time and making the Kingdom of Ghazni very wealthy. It is said that he had vowed to invade India successively every year. He has made invasions into Kabul, Peshawar, Lahore, Multan, Bhatinda, Thaneshwar, Kashmir(but defeated), Kanauj, Mathura, Gwalior, Ujjain, Somnath and many more places. All the temples in these regions were teared down and any wealth obtained was looted and carried to the capital city of Ghazni. It is said that Muhammad of Ghazni was impressed by Indian sub-continent that he sent his scholar Al-Biruni to write extensively on the same. Al-Biruni then wrote the book Kitab-al-Hind. In contrast to what is written by historians of India, Muhammad was immensely praised by the Ghaznivan historians as a great king and patron of arts.
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| Muhammad of Ghazni Empire |
History of Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD -1526 AD):
Muhammad of Ghori (1191 - 1206 AD)
1191 AD: Muhammad of Ghori or Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad was the Sultan of Ghurid dynasty. He was credited with laying the foundation for Muslim rule in India. He invaded India in 1175 AD. After conquering Multan in 1175 AD he has suffered defeat in Gujarat. He then returned to Ghor to safeguard other parts of his Kingdom which were under threat. In 1191 AD, Mu'izz enters India through Khyber pass and conquers Bhatinda fortress and advances to Tarain to face Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer and Delhi. In the first battle of Tarain, he was defeated by Prithviraj. In 1192 AD in the second battle of Tarain, Mu'izz takes Prithviraj down and takes him as prisoner of war. He then starts advancing his kingdom in to different parts of India. These advancements are all done under the rule of Mu'izz and his Slave-Turkic General Qutbu I-Din Aibak as the lead.
There is a distinctive practice among these Kings of Turk-Afghan dynasties specifically of the Ghurid dynasty. A kingdom as large as the one shown below in the map requires governors and generals who are very reliable and trustworthy. Most kingdoms which stand in the north-west India are most frequently attacked by the Mongols from the north-west. Further, governors and generals more frequently than not take advantage of any sign of weakness from the side of the King. To eliminate such events of backstabbing, these kings buy slaves(mostly Persian) and raise them as their own. Since the life of a slave is dedicated to his master he shall be reliable. Usually these slaves will be given most prominent and highly important posts in the administration and military.
As per the legend it is said that Muhammad of Ghor was killed by Prithviraj Chauhan in a show of his archery prowess. It is said that Muhammad blindfolded Prithviraj and asked him to shoot an arrow at him targeting him by the sound of his voice. As the Muhammad made a sound, it is said that Prithviraj's shot an arrow that pierced into Muhammad's throat. However, there were no evidences which prove that and Muhammad's death is recorded to be on 1206 AD.
Qutbu I-Din Aibak (1206 - 1210 AD)
1191 AD: Muhammad of Ghori or Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad was the Sultan of Ghurid dynasty. He was credited with laying the foundation for Muslim rule in India. He invaded India in 1175 AD. After conquering Multan in 1175 AD he has suffered defeat in Gujarat. He then returned to Ghor to safeguard other parts of his Kingdom which were under threat. In 1191 AD, Mu'izz enters India through Khyber pass and conquers Bhatinda fortress and advances to Tarain to face Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer and Delhi. In the first battle of Tarain, he was defeated by Prithviraj. In 1192 AD in the second battle of Tarain, Mu'izz takes Prithviraj down and takes him as prisoner of war. He then starts advancing his kingdom in to different parts of India. These advancements are all done under the rule of Mu'izz and his Slave-Turkic General Qutbu I-Din Aibak as the lead.
There is a distinctive practice among these Kings of Turk-Afghan dynasties specifically of the Ghurid dynasty. A kingdom as large as the one shown below in the map requires governors and generals who are very reliable and trustworthy. Most kingdoms which stand in the north-west India are most frequently attacked by the Mongols from the north-west. Further, governors and generals more frequently than not take advantage of any sign of weakness from the side of the King. To eliminate such events of backstabbing, these kings buy slaves(mostly Persian) and raise them as their own. Since the life of a slave is dedicated to his master he shall be reliable. Usually these slaves will be given most prominent and highly important posts in the administration and military.
The Sultans were advised: “A slave, whom one has brought up and promoted, must be looked after for it needs a whole lifetime and good luck to find a worthy and experienced slave. Wise men have said that a worthy and experienced slave is better than a son ...”
As per the legend it is said that Muhammad of Ghor was killed by Prithviraj Chauhan in a show of his archery prowess. It is said that Muhammad blindfolded Prithviraj and asked him to shoot an arrow at him targeting him by the sound of his voice. As the Muhammad made a sound, it is said that Prithviraj's shot an arrow that pierced into Muhammad's throat. However, there were no evidences which prove that and Muhammad's death is recorded to be on 1206 AD.
Qutbu I-Din Aibak (1206 - 1210 AD)
After Muhammad's death his entire kingdom which has four provinces was divided among the four provincial generals. Delhi province was hence inherited by the slave-general Qutbu I-Din Aibak. Thus Qutbu I-Din Aibak laid the foundation of Slave Dynasty or Mamluk dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate. Mamluk/Slave dynasty is the first of the five unrelated kingdoms that will rule sultanate of delhi from 1206-1526 AD. The first four kingdoms were of Turkic origin and the last one Lodi dynasty being of Afghan origin.
It is to be clearly noted that the province of Aibak which was originally won over by Muhammad of Ghor at the second battle of Tarain belong to Prithviraj Chauhan who belonged to Delhi and Ajmer (Rajput dynasty). Rajputs being Kshatriyan Hindu Kings were inclined to build temples and monasteries which usually are associated with heavy architecture. When the Turks took over these kingdoms they destroyed these sacred temples of Rajputs and built their own Architectural Monuments. Some of the examples of such buildings are: Qutub Minar, Quwwatu I-Isam Mosque in Delhi which were built on Lal Kota (Capital of Tomars and Chauhans) and Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra or Ajmer Mosque at Ajmer which was built after demolishing the temples and sanskrit school at that site. Qutub Minar has been designated as UNESCO's World Heritage Site in the year 1993.
Qutbu I-Din Aibak, the slave viceroy General of Muhammad of Ghor laid foundations in 1191 AD for the construction of Qutub Minar in Mehrauli in South-West Delhi. It was basically built to commemorate the victory of Muhammad over the Rajput King. Also, it is said that it was dedicated to a famous Sufi saint of the time, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. Aibak changed the cultural signature of Mehrauli(Delhi) by destroying the Lal-Kot(of Hindu Rajput culture) and building Qutub Minar and Quwwat I-Islam mosque on its ruins. Qutub Minar is a 72.5 Meter high tower having 14.3m base diameter and 2.7m top diameter. It has steps to climb. As the name suggests, the tower was to serve the purpose of a minaret from where 'adhan'(Islamic call to worship) could be issued.
To the north-east of the Minar is the Quwwat I-Isalm mosque. It is the Jama Masjid(Meaning: Main Mosque of the City or the Friday Mosque) was built after destroying 27 Hindu temples which were built by Rajputs, originally in that place. The mosque, minaret and the surrounding grounds are called Qutub Complex. Although, the mosque and the Minaret's foundation was laid by Aibak, it was completed only by his successor Illtutmish. Later, kings like Allaudin Khilji of Khilji dynasty, Firoz shah of Tuglaq dynasty and Ibrahim Lodhi of Lodhi dynasty repaired and/or built more structures in the Qutub Complex.
In addition to all this, there stands a 7.21 Iron pillar weighing over 6 Tonnes. It was supposed to have a huge hanging bell of 646 Kgs making the entire structure heavier. This pillar dates back to the time of Ashoka as proved from his inscriptions on it. In addition to Ashokan inscriptions there were found inscriptions of great Gupta King, Chandra Guptha II. This pillar is said to have a 'Garuda' capital as with other similar iron pillars of Guptha period. Qutbu I-Din Aibak was considered to be a iconoclastic in contrast to being called as Lakhbaksh(giver of lakhs) for his generosity. He died while playing Polo in his capital region. Aibak ruled from 1206-1210 AD for mere four years. It is controversial as to why the second king of Delhi Sultanate, Aram Shah was dethroned in one year in 1211 AD but it is said so that he was weak and ill-powered to rule the kingdom. So, slave governor(of Badayun) who rose to prominence under Muhammad of Ghori and Aibak, Iltutmish was claimed to have dethroned Aram Shah to become the Sultan of Delhi. Also, Iltutmish was the son-in-law of Qutbu I-Din Aibak.
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (r. 1211-1236 AD)
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish took the throne in the year 1211 AD. History repeats here, after the death of Qutbu I-Din Aibak. Back then, death of Muhammad of Ghor turned his vast empire into four major provinces. The control of these provinces was taken over by Governors of respective provinces thus making them Kings of the provinces. In a similar situation, death of Qutbu I-Din Aibak turned his empire into four provinces, Delhi being ruled by Iltutmish(Originally by Aram Shah for a year then Iltutmish dethrones him). Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha takes over the Multan and Uchh region. Bihar and Bengal regions by Ghiyasuddin(Son) and Ali mardhan Khilji(Father).
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish took the throne in the year 1211 AD. History repeats here, after the death of Qutbu I-Din Aibak. Back then, death of Muhammad of Ghor turned his vast empire into four major provinces. The control of these provinces was taken over by Governors of respective provinces thus making them Kings of the provinces. In a similar situation, death of Qutbu I-Din Aibak turned his empire into four provinces, Delhi being ruled by Iltutmish(Originally by Aram Shah for a year then Iltutmish dethrones him). Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha takes over the Multan and Uchh region. Bihar and Bengal regions by Ghiyasuddin(Son) and Ali mardhan Khilji(Father).
Iltutmish contests for Lahore along with Taj al-Din Yildoz(Adopted son of Muhammad Ghori) and Qabacha. Initially Yildoz accepts to be as a vassal(suzerainty) under the Sultan(Iltutmish) but Yildoz plans to conquer the Delhi Sultanate. Ultimately Yildoz was prisoned and executed by Iltutmish. At the same time the north-east kingdoms which were once the kingdoms of Rajputs were all regained by them. This made Iltutmish's Empire disintegrate initially. However later he charged military expansion and regained all the Rajput Kingdoms and Lahore as well from the Qabacha(who conquers it). Iltutmish refused to make any invasions towards the north-west in order to avoid coming in contact with the Mongol ruler- Genghis Khan.
Mongol Invasions: In 1221 AD, Genghis Khan and his Mongolian army was first spotted near river Indus. Genghis Khan conquered most parts of Central Asia and North-West India including Khwarazmian Kingdom(Previously attacked and conquered by Muhammad of Ghor). Iltutmish avoided any conflict with them and did not invade north-western part of India until after 1227 AD.
Military expansion: From 1225 AD, Iltutmish started extending his Kingdom through military expansion. He takes down Giyasuddin of Bihar in 1225 AD. Iltutmush elder and brave son, Nasiruddin Mahmud , helped his father in expanding his Kingdom especially in capturing and imprisoning Giyasuddin. Soon in 1229 AD, Nasiruddin Mahmud dies. Iltutmish further expands and conquers Bengal and makes Ali mardhan the Governor. He then raids on Qabacha of the Multan and Uchh in the north west and captures him only to see him drown in the nearby river trying to escape. Thus, Iltutmish captures all the provinces which were part of Aibak's rule and further extends his Empire at several places.
Chalisa: Iltutmish installed a new nobility. It consists of Turkic and Mawali(Non-Arab muslims: Mostly muslims of Hindu origin) who worked under Iltutmish and Qutbu I-Din Aibak. This council of forty is referred as Turkan-i-chihalgani or chalisa(Chalis meaning 40 in Persian).
Iqtadari system: Iqtadari system which was common among the Turkic rulers was followed during his reign. Iltutmish divided the kingdom into varying territories called 'iqtas'. Military commanders were appointed as heads of each iqta and are called 'muqtis'. These muqtis collected fixed revenue from the iqtas as defined by the Sultan. These muqtis were kept under strict vigilance to ensure no extra charges were levied on the public. The iqtas were not hereditary and the Muqtis got transferred after specified period of time to different iqtas and so on.
Coins: Iltutmish introduced 2 new coins: Silver Tankas and copper jitals. Construction of Qutub minar and Quwwat I-Islam mosque which was started during Aibak's reign was completed during the rule of Iltutmish. Iltutmish further extended the Qutub Complex. It is said that Aibak hired sculptors of Hindu origin to build great architecture in the Qutub Complex. During the reign of Iltutmish, sculptors of muslim origin rose and Persian architecture was evident from the parts of Qutub minar and Quwwat I-Islam mosque built under his rule.
The Caliph of Islam: In 1228-29 AD, The Caliph of Islam, Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir, who resided in Egypt then, sent emissaries besides Sultan Iltutmish being presented with the Caliphal robe (khilat) and investiture (manshur) signifying the Caliphate's recognition of Iltutmish's rule over India. Iltutmish was said to have been recognized as the 'Sultan of Delhi' which was a symbolic declaration of Delhi Sultanate's status as an Independent Kingdom rather than an extension of the Ghurid Kingdom. Such recognition was highly sought after by the Sunni Muslim rulers of India as it leant religious and political legitimacy and prestige.
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| Sultan Ghari |
Tomb Building: Iltumish was considered as the Father of Tomb Building, he built first mausoleum for his eldest son Prince Nasiru'd-Din Mahmud, in the year 1231 AD. The Mausoleum is called 'Sultan Ghari'. Just five years later, while he was in rule, Iltutmish built his own tomb in the Qutub complex. Although there was only 5 years gap, the architecture of Iltutmish tomb is evidently different from Sultan Ghari.
Successor: Iltutmish, after the loss of his elder son in 1229 AD is left with three sons and one daughter Raziyya. Raziyya is said to be most courageous, daring, highly intellectual administrator and carried many more traits of a great ruler. Other three sons being no match to her in administrative and political skills, Iltutmish, on his death-bed, nominated his daughter Razia as his heiress Raziyya as the Successor of the throne. The Turkan-i-chihalangani continued under the rule of Raziyya Sultana. Minhaj-i Siraj, chronicler of Iltutmish's time wrote the book Tabaqat-i-nasiri consisting of 23 volumes and written in a blunt straightforward style. He devoted many years to the creation of this book even providing references for his information. He comments on Raziyya Sultana saying:
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| Iltutmish's tomb |
' The queen’s rule went against the ideal social order created by God, in which women were supposed to be subordinate to men. He therefore asked: “In the register of God’s creation, since her account did not fall under the column of men, how did she gain from all of her excellent qualities?" '
In spite of Iltutmish's nomination of Raziyya as the next Sultan of Delhi, the Chalisa rose Iltutmish's eldest living son Rukn-ud-din-Firuz as the Sultan. This was due to the fundamental mindset of the chalisa and other governors who were not comfortable to accept a woman ruler commanding them. As a result of this, Firuz, who was a self-endowed person and a weak administrator. During his seven-month rule his mother Shah Turkan took the power and took care of administration(she mostly took revenge against people who offended her in her youth. As a result many people got killed). Both the son and the mother were killed in a rebellion and reluctantly the nobles passed the throne to Raziyya!
Raziyya Sulatan(a) (1236 - 1240 AD):
Raziyya was a very courageous and most powerful administrator. The only reason she was brought down was that she was a lady. Raziyya did not cover herself with the purdah and dressed like a man in open courts. She always wanted her to be referred as Sultan instead of Sultana(which meant wife of Sultan). She was a skillful horse rider. She used to lead the army herself. She was shrewd politician and possessed all qualities of a Monarch. She appointed a Abyssinian slave Jamat-ud-din Yaqut as the superintendent of Stables in 1240 AD. This appointment of a non-turkish slave disturbed and aggravated lot of nobles and other Governors of the states. The rebellion started in Lahore by the Governor of Lahore. When Raziyya took him down, Mir Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda led the nobles to defeat Raziyya and imprisoned her. To escape imprisonment, she marries, Altunia and on the way back to Delhi, both Raziyya and her new husband Altunia were attacked and killed(1240 AD) by her brother Muiz-ud-din-Bahram. Bahram ruled for two years until he was killed by his own army in 1242 AD. Later, Ala-ud-din Masud who was son of Rukn-ud-din-Firuz. Ala-ud-din Masud(1242-46 AD) was chosen as Sultan by the chiefs. He was chosen mainly as he was weak and chiefs took advantage of him and made him a puppet sultan. He was an alcohol and entertainment addict. When he started demanding more power in the administrative affairs he was dethroned in 1246 AD and Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud took over the throne. He was the son of the only strong Prince of Iltutmish, Nasiru'd-Din Mahmud who died in 1229 AD. He was named after his father by Iltutmish.
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246 - 1266 AD), Ghiyas-ud-din Balban ( 1266 - 1286 AD)
Order in the state was re-established(after Raziyya's death) only with the commencement of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud as the Sultan of Delhi. During his reign from 1246-1266 AD, he had his father-in-law, Ghiyas-ud-din Balban as his Deputy Sultan(Naib). Balban was previously a member of Chalisa(40 nobles) and is said to have controlled the state affairs to large extent. Unlike any other ruler of his time, Mahmud was said to have followed monogamy, and spent most of the time in prayers and renowned his time for poor and the distressed. His food was cooked by his wife. Having no children, his thrown was passed down to his father-in-law Balban following his death(which was said to be planned by Balban himself). However even under Nasir-ud-din, Balban took care of most of the administration.
Raziyya was a very courageous and most powerful administrator. The only reason she was brought down was that she was a lady. Raziyya did not cover herself with the purdah and dressed like a man in open courts. She always wanted her to be referred as Sultan instead of Sultana(which meant wife of Sultan). She was a skillful horse rider. She used to lead the army herself. She was shrewd politician and possessed all qualities of a Monarch. She appointed a Abyssinian slave Jamat-ud-din Yaqut as the superintendent of Stables in 1240 AD. This appointment of a non-turkish slave disturbed and aggravated lot of nobles and other Governors of the states. The rebellion started in Lahore by the Governor of Lahore. When Raziyya took him down, Mir Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda led the nobles to defeat Raziyya and imprisoned her. To escape imprisonment, she marries, Altunia and on the way back to Delhi, both Raziyya and her new husband Altunia were attacked and killed(1240 AD) by her brother Muiz-ud-din-Bahram. Bahram ruled for two years until he was killed by his own army in 1242 AD. Later, Ala-ud-din Masud who was son of Rukn-ud-din-Firuz. Ala-ud-din Masud(1242-46 AD) was chosen as Sultan by the chiefs. He was chosen mainly as he was weak and chiefs took advantage of him and made him a puppet sultan. He was an alcohol and entertainment addict. When he started demanding more power in the administrative affairs he was dethroned in 1246 AD and Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud took over the throne. He was the son of the only strong Prince of Iltutmish, Nasiru'd-Din Mahmud who died in 1229 AD. He was named after his father by Iltutmish.
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246 - 1266 AD), Ghiyas-ud-din Balban ( 1266 - 1286 AD)
Order in the state was re-established(after Raziyya's death) only with the commencement of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud as the Sultan of Delhi. During his reign from 1246-1266 AD, he had his father-in-law, Ghiyas-ud-din Balban as his Deputy Sultan(Naib). Balban was previously a member of Chalisa(40 nobles) and is said to have controlled the state affairs to large extent. Unlike any other ruler of his time, Mahmud was said to have followed monogamy, and spent most of the time in prayers and renowned his time for poor and the distressed. His food was cooked by his wife. Having no children, his thrown was passed down to his father-in-law Balban following his death(which was said to be planned by Balban himself). However even under Nasir-ud-din, Balban took care of most of the administration.
During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron fist. He broke up the 'Chahalgani', a group of the forty most important nobles in the court. He reduced the power of the treacherous nobility and heightened the stature of the sultan. He himself was a member of Chalisa before ascending to the throne. He ordered the separation of military department from the finance department (diwan – i – wizarai), and the former was placed under a ministry for military affairs (diwan – i – ariz).
He declared the Sultan as the representative of God on earth. He impressed upon the People that king was the deputy of God (niyabat – i – khudai) and the shadow of God (zil – i – ilahi). Introduced Sijdah or Paibos practice, in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground with their head to greet the Sultan. He also instructed to the ulemas to confine themselves to religious affairs and not to engage in political activities. He also started the festival of Nauroz which is still celebrated in Iran. In order to win the confidence of the public, he administered justice with extreme impartiality. He employed an efficient spy system. He was a liberal patron of Persian literature and showed special favour to the poet, Amir Khusro.
Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown by establishing an efficient espionage system. Balban placed secret reporters and news-writers in every department. Balban had his nobles punished most harshly for any mishap, including severe treatment of their own slaves. The spies who failed to report the incident to the king were hung in the city's gates. About his justice Dr. Ishwari Prasad remarked "So great was the dread of Sultan's inexorable justice that no one dared to ill-treat his servant and slaves."
Balban re-organised the military against the threat of the Mongols. He re-organised the revenues of the Iqatadars. The process of centralization as a clear policy was implemented under Balban. As part of a policy of tighter control over the mobility, he demanded excess revenue or surplus over and above the expenditure incurred by the Muqti. A ‘Khwaja’ or accountant was appointed for every iqta. This suggests a genuine effort to estimate actual revenue expenditure and surplus. Also it indicates a separation of military and financial powers.
In 1279, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban. It was suppressed and he was beheaded. In the northwest the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to the Sultan. Balban died in 1287. He was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. He enhanced the power of the monarchy. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasions.
He ruled as the Sultan from 1266 until his death in 1286, allegdly at the age of eighty, which was very old at the time. His destined heir was his older son, Muhammad Khan, but he had perished in battle against the Mongols. His other son, Bughra Khan, was not so highly esteemed by his father, and sought to remain the ruler of Bengal instead. He therefore choose his grandson, Qai Khusrau, son of Bughra Khan, as heir apparent. However, after his death his nobles nominated Qai Khusrau's brother, Qaiqubad as Sultan Muizz ud-din. Qaiqubad reign (1287–1290), while his father, Bughra Khan, asserted independence in Bengal. Qaiqubad was very weak and incompetent and eventually suffered from paralytic stroke and had to pass the rule to his three years old son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, who was eventually dethronned by Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji in 1290, bringing an end to the Slave dynasty.
This brings us to the end of First of the five totally unrelated dynasties which ruled the Delhi Sultanate. Next comes the Khilji Dynasty.
He ruled as the Sultan from 1266 until his death in 1286, allegdly at the age of eighty, which was very old at the time. His destined heir was his older son, Muhammad Khan, but he had perished in battle against the Mongols. His other son, Bughra Khan, was not so highly esteemed by his father, and sought to remain the ruler of Bengal instead. He therefore choose his grandson, Qai Khusrau, son of Bughra Khan, as heir apparent. However, after his death his nobles nominated Qai Khusrau's brother, Qaiqubad as Sultan Muizz ud-din. Qaiqubad reign (1287–1290), while his father, Bughra Khan, asserted independence in Bengal. Qaiqubad was very weak and incompetent and eventually suffered from paralytic stroke and had to pass the rule to his three years old son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, who was eventually dethronned by Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji in 1290, bringing an end to the Slave dynasty.
This brings us to the end of First of the five totally unrelated dynasties which ruled the Delhi Sultanate. Next comes the Khilji Dynasty.
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